Chapter 12

NAVIES

This is not the place to discuss the naval side of craft and waterways in Canada. That requires a book of its own. But no study of Canada's maritime interests, however short, can close without a passing reference to her naval history.

When the Kirkes, with their tiny flotilla, took Quebec from Champlain's tiny garrison in 1629 the great guiding principles of sea-power were as much at work as when Phips led his American colonists to defeat against Frontenac in 1690, or as when Saunders and Wolfe led the admirably united forces of their enormous fleet and little army to victory in 1759. In the same way the decisive influence of sea-power was triumphantly exerted by Iberville, the French naval hero of Canada, when, with his single ship, the _Pélican_, he defeated his three British opponents in a gallant fight; and so, for the time being, won the {180} absolute command of Hudson Bay in 1697. Again, it was naval rather than political and military forces that made American independence an accomplished fact. The opposition to the war in England counted for a good deal; and the French and American armies for still more. But the really decisive anti-British force consisted of practically all the foreign navies in the world, some--like the French, Spanish, Dutch, and the Americans' own--taking an active part in the war, while the others were kept ready in reserve by the hostile armed neutrality of Russia, Sweden, Denmark, Prussia, and the smaller sea-coast states of Germany. Once again, in the War of 1812, it was the two annihilating American naval victories on Lakes Erie and Champlain that turned the scale far enough back to offset the preponderant British military victories along the Canadian frontier and prevent the advance of that frontier beyond Detroit and into the state of Maine.

There were very few people in 1910 who remembered that the Canadian navy then begun was the third local force of its kind in Canada, though the first to be wholly paid and managed locally. From the launch of La Salle's _Griffon_ in 1679 down to the Cession in 1763 there was {181} always some sort of French naval force built, manned, and managed in New France, though ultimately paid and directed from royal headquarters in Paris through the minister of Marine and Colonies. It is significant that 'marine' and 'colonies' were made a single government department throughout the French régime. The change of rule did not entail the abolition of local forces; and from 1755, when a British flotilla of six little vessels was launched on Lake Ontario, down to and beyond the peace with the United States sixty years later, there was what soon became a 'Provincial Marine,' which did good service against the Americans in 1776, when it was largely manned from the Royal Navy, and less good service in 1812, when it was a great deal more local in every way. Two vestiges of those days linger on to the present time, the first in the Canadian Militia Act, which provides for a naval as well as a military militia, permanent forces included, and the second in one of the governor-general's official titles--'Vice-Admiral' of Canada.

The Canadian privateers are even less known than the Provincial Marine. Yet they did a good deal of preying on the enemy at different times, and they amounted altogether to a total {182} which will probably surprise most students of Canadian history. At Halifax alone eighteen Nova Scotian privateers took out letters of marque against the French between 1756 and 1760, twelve more against the French between 1800 and 1805, and no less than forty-four against the Americans during the War of 1812.

The century of peace which followed this war gradually came to be taken so much as a matter of course that Canadians forgot the lessons of the past and ignored the portents of the future. The very supremacy of a navy which protected them for nothing made them forget that without its guardian ships they could not have reached their Canadian nationality at all. Occasionally a threatened crisis would bring home to them some more intimate appreciation of British sea-power. But, for the rest, they took the Navy like the rising and the setting of the sun.

The twentieth century opened on a rapidly changing naval world. British supremacy was no longer to go unchallenged, at least so far as preparation went. The German Emperor followed up his pronouncement, 'Our future is on the sea,' by vigorous action. For the first time in history a German navy became a powerful force, fit to lead, rather than to {183} follow, its Austrian and Italian allies. Also for the first time in history the New World developed a sea-power of first-class importance in the navy of the United States. And, again for the first time in history, the immemorial East produced a navy which annihilated the fleet of a European world-power when Japan beat Russia at Tsu-shima in the centennial year of Nelson at Trafalgar.

These portentous changes finally roused the oversea dominions of the British Empire to some sense of the value of that navy which had been protecting them so efficiently and so long at the mother country's sole expense. But the dawn of naval truth broke slowly and, following the sun, went round from east to west. First it reached New Zealand, then Australia, then South Africa, and then, a long way last, Canada; though Canada was the oldest, the largest, the most highly favoured in population and resources, the richest, and the most expensively protected of them all.

There was a searching of hearts and a gradual comprehension of first principles. Colonies which had been living the sheltered life for generations began to see that their immunity from attack was not due to any warlike virtue of their own, much less to any of their {184} 'victories of peace,' but simply to the fact that the British Navy represented the survival of the fittest in a previous struggle for existence. More than two centuries of repeated struggle, from the Armada in 1588 to Trafalgar in 1805, had given the British Empire a century of armed peace all round the Seven Seas, and its colonies a century's start ahead of every rival. But in 1905 the possible rivals were beginning to draw up once more, thanks to the age-long naval peace; and the launch of her first modern Dreadnought showed that the mother country felt the need of putting forth her strength again to meet a world of new competitors.

The critical question now was whether or not the oversea dominions would do their proper share. They had grown, under free naval protection, into strong commercial nations, with combined populations equal to nearly a third of that in the mother country, and combined revenues exceeding a third of hers. They had a free choice. Canada, for instance, might have declared herself independent, though she could not have made herself more free, and would certainly not have been able to maintain a position of complete independence in any serious crisis. Or she could have destroyed her individual Canadian {185} characteristics by joining the United States; though in this case she would have been obliged to pay her share towards keeping up a navy which was far smaller than the British and much more costly in proportion. As another alternative she could have said that her postal and customs preferences in favour of the mother country, taken in conjunction with what she paid for her militia, were enough. This would have put her far behind New Zealand and Australia, both of whom were doing much more, in proportion to their wealth and population.

There was a very natural curiosity to see what Canada would do, because she was much the senior of the other dominions, while in size, wealth, and population she practically equalled all three of them together. But whatever the expectations were, they were doomed to disappointment, for, while she was last in starting, she did not reach any decisive result at all. Australia, New Zealand--and even South Africa, so lately the scene of a devastating war--each gave money, while Canada gave none. New Zealand, with only one-seventh of Canada's population, gave a Dreadnought, while Canada gave none. Australia had a battle-worthy squadron of her own--but Canada had nothing but a mere flotilla.

{186}

The explanation of this strange discrepancy is to be found, partly, in geographical position. The geographical position of Canada differs widely from that of any other dominion. She lives beside the United States, a country with a population ten times greater than her own, a country, moreover, which holds the Monroe Doctrine as an article of faith in foreign policy. This famous doctrine simply means that the United States is determined to be the predominant power in the whole New World and to prevent any outside power from gaining a foothold there. Consequently the United States must defend, if necessary, any weaker nation in America whenever it is attacked by any stronger nation from outside. Of course the United States would exert its power only on its own terms, to which any weaker friend would be obliged to submit. But so long as there was no immediate danger that the public could actually feel, the Monroe Doctrine provided a very handy argument for all those who preferred to do nothing. Another peculiarity of Canada's position is that she is far enough away from the great powers of Europe and from the black and yellow races of Africa and Asia to prevent her from realizing so quickly as the mother country the danger from the {187} first, or so quickly as her sister dominions the danger from the second.

For five successive years, from 1909 to 1913, the naval policy of Canada was the subject of debate in parliament, press, and public meetings. In 1909 the building programme for the German navy brought on a debate in the Imperial parliament which found an echo throughout the Empire. The Canadian parliament then passed a loyal resolution with the consent of both parties. In 1910 these parties began to differ. The Liberals, who were then in power, started a distinctively Canadian navy on a very small scale. In 1911 naval policy was, for the first time, one of the vexed questions in a general election. In 1912 the new Conservative government passed through the House of Commons an act authorizing an appropriation of thirty-five million dollars for three first-class Dreadnought battleships. This happened to be the exact sum paid by the Imperial government for the fortification of Quebec in 1832, and considerably less than one-thirtieth part of what the Imperial government had paid for the naval and military protection of Canada during the British régime. The Senate reversed the decision of the Commons in 1913, with the result that Canada's total naval contribution {188} up to date consisted of five years' discussion and a little three-year-old navy which had far less than half the fighting power of New Zealand's single Dreadnought.

The two great parliamentary parties agreed on the general proposition that Canada ought to do something for her own defence at sea, and that, within the British Empire, she enjoyed naval advantages which were unobtainable elsewhere. But they differed radically on the vexed question of ways and means. The Conservatives said there was a naval emergency and proposed to give three Dreadnoughts to the Imperial government on certain conditions. The principal condition was that Canada could take them back at any time if she wished to use them for a navy of her own. The Liberals objected that there was no naval emergency, and that it was wrong to let any force of any kind pass out of the control of the Canadian government. Nothing, of course, could be done without the consent of parliament; and the consent of parliament means the consent of both Houses, the Senate and the Commons of Canada. There was a Conservative majority in the Commons and a Liberal majority in the Senate. The voting went by parties, and a complete deadlock ensued.

{189}

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE

ALL AFLOAT seems to be the only book of its kind. Not only this, but no other book seems to have been written on the special subject of any one of its eleven chapters. There are many books in which canoes figure largely, but none which gives the history of the canoe in Canada. Books on sailing craft, on steamers, on fisheries, on every aspect of maritime administration, and, most of all, on navies, are very abundant. But, so far, none of them seems to have been devoted exclusively to the Canadian part of these various themes, with the single exception of a purely naval work, _The Logs of the Conquest of Canada_, by the present author, who has consequently been obliged to write a good deal from his own experience with paddle, sail, and steam. Of course there are many excellent articles, some of considerable length, in the Transactions of several learned societies, like the Royal Society of Canada, the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec, the Nova Scotia Historical Society, the Ontario Historical Society, and so on. There are also a certain number of pamphlets and official bluebooks--like those of the department of {190} Marine and Fisheries; and there is an immense mass of original evidence stored away in the Dominion Archives and elsewhere. But books for the public do not seem to exist; and the suggestion might be hazarded that this whole subject offers one of the best unworked or little-worked fields remaining open to the pioneer in Canadian historical research.

Under these circumstances all that can be done here is to name a few of the many books which either cover some part of the subject incidentally or deal with what is most closely allied to it.

CANOES are mentioned in every book of travel along the inland waterways, kayaks in every book about the Eskimos. La Hontan's _Travels_, though imaginative, give interesting details, as do the much more sober _Travels_ of Peter Kalm, the Swedish naturalist. Kohl's _Kitchi-Gami_ is a good book. But the list might be extended indefinitely.

SAILING CRAFT and STEAMERS require some sort of nautical dictionary, though even a dictionary sometimes adds to the puzzles of the landsman. Admiral Smyth's _Sailor's Word Book_, and Dana's _Seaman's Friend_ (as it is called in the United States), or _Seaman's Manual_ (as it is called in England), are excellent. Peake's _Rudimentary Treatise on Shipbuilding_ covers the period so well described in Clark's _Clipper Ship Era_ and Dana's _Two Years before the Mast_. Sir George Holmes's {191} _Ancient and Modern Ships_ and Paasch's magnificent polyglot marine dictionary, _From Keel to Truck_, deal with steam as well as sail. Lubbock's _Round the Horn before the Mast_ gives a good account of a modern steel wind-jammer. Patton's article on shipping and canals in _Canada and Its Provinces_ is a very good non-nautical account of its subject, and is quite as long and thorough as the ordinary book. Fry's _History of North Atlantic Steam Navigation_ includes a great deal on Canada. _The Times Shipping Number_ gives an up-to-date account of British and foreign shipping in 1912. Barnaby's _Naval Development in the Nineteenth Century_ is well worth reading. So is Bullen's _Men of the Merchant Service_; and so, it might be added, are a hundred other books.

FISHERIES are the subject of a vast literature. An excellent general account, but more European than Canadian, is Hérubel's _Sea Fisheries_. Grenfell's _Labrador_ and Browne's _Where the Fishers Go_ give a good idea of the Atlantic coast; so, indeed, does Kipling's _Captains Courageous_. The butchering of seals in the Gulf and round Newfoundland does not seem to have found any special historian, though much has been written on the fur seal question in Alaska. Whaling is recorded in many books. Bullen's _Cruise of the Cachalot_ is good reading; but annals that incidentally apply more closely to Bluenose whalers are set forth in Spears's _Story of the New England Whalers_.

{192}

Books on the many subjects grouped together under the general title of ADMINISTRATION cannot even be mentioned. Such headings as Marine Insurance, Seamen's Institutes, Lighthouses, Navigation, etc., must be looked up in reference catalogues.

When we come to NAVIES the number of books is so great that they too must be looked up separately. Corbett's _England in the Seven Years' War_ and all the works of Admiral Mahan should certainly be consulted. Snider's collection of well-spun yarns, _In the Wake of the Eighteen-Twelvers_, seems to be the only book that has ever been devoted to the old Canadian Provincial Marine.

{193}

INDEX

'Accommodation,' first steamer built in Canada, 130-2.

Allan, Andrew, with his brother Hugh founds the Allan Line, 145, 146.

Allan, Sir Hugh, founds the first Canadian transatlantic line of steamers, 145, 146-8.

America, looked upon as an obstruction to navigation, 46. See United States.

American Independence, antagonism of foreign navies to Britain a decisive factor in accomplishing, 180.

Arctic exploration, 14, 41.

'Ariel,' in famous clipper race, 103.

Australia and the British Navy, 183, 185.

Aylmer, Lord, at the launching of the 'Royal William,' 140

Bacon, Lord, on the Canadian fisheries, 15.

Baffin, William, his record 'Farthest North,' 55.

Barge, the, 27.

Basque fishermen, in the St Lawrence, 165.

Bateau, the, 27-8.

'Bavarian,' first Atlantic liner entirely built of steel, 148.

Bayfield, Admiral, makes surveys in Canadian waters, 178.

Beaulieu, François, a voyageur with Mackenzie, 17.

Bennett and Henderson, a firm of engineers, 140.

Black Ball Line, conditions under the, 94.

Black, George, a shipbuilder at Quebec, 139.

Black Taylor, befitting end of, 94-5.

Bluenose craft, 63, 71; get a bad name, 77; building of, 82; crews of, 92-3; discipline on, 97-100; under sail, 100, 101, 103-4, 113-28.

Boat, the, 26-7, 28-30.

Boston, reception of the 'Royal William' at, 142.

Bougainville, Comte de, French navigator, 13.

Boulton and Watt, firm of engineers, 130, 132, 135.

'Britannia,' the first Cunarder to arrive in Canada, 145.

British Columbia, fisheries of, 159.

British mercantile marine, 7-8, 12. See Great Britain.

British peoples, sea terms in speech of, 8-9.

British crews, a comparison with Yankees, 95, 97.

Bruce, John, builds first Canadian steamer, 130-1.

'Brunelle,' her speed, 79.

Bryce, James, British ambassador at Washington, 6.

Cabot, John, his voyage to America, 45, 46; his ship, 48-9.

California, rush of vessels to, 74.

Campbell, John Saxton, shipowner in Quebec, 139.

Canada, waters of, 1-4, 7; troubles over water frontiers of, 4-6; her importance in international questions, 5-6; a comparison with Russia, 7; her position in the British Empire, 7-8; her dependence on the mercantile marine, 11; ignorance in concerning naval history, 13-14; her fisheries, 14, 155-9, 161-4; evolution of sailing craft in, 15; her trade relations with West Indies and France, 60, 62; her prosperity under Navigation Laws, 68, 69; some disturbing factors in her shipping trade, 73-4; becomes a great shipping centre, 75-6, 129-30; decline of shipbuilding in, 76, 80-1; her position at Lloyd's, 77-9, 175; some notable craft, 79-80; five principal features of Canadian steamship history, 151; her naval policy, 180-1, 182, 183-8.

'Canada,' the largest and fastest steamer of her time, 135.

Canada Steamship Lines Limited, 150.

'Canadian,' the first Allan Line steamer, 147.

Canadian Militia Act, the, 181.

Canadian Pacific Railway, its fleets of steamers, 148, 150-151.

Canadians, some sea terms in speech of, 8-9.

Canoe: Indian, 15, 16; birch-bark, 17, 18, 20-4; Canadian, 25; keeled, 25-6; gives place to the boat, 28-30; a voyage in, 33-6.

Cape Horn, a voyage round, 119-28.

Cartier, Jacques, in the Gulf, 16, 46; compared with modern hydrographers, 47, 177; his ship, 48-9.

Champlain, Samuel de, 30; first to advocate the Panama Canal, 54; his record voyage, 55, 101-2, 177.

Chanties, the seaman's working songs, 110-13, 128.

'Charlotte Dundas,' pioneer steamer, 130.

'Clermont,' an early steamer, 130.

Clippers, a race with, from China to London, 102-3.

Colbert, Jean Baptiste, the great French minister, 57, 59, 60.

Conquest, importance of the Navy in the, 13.

Cook, Captain, British navigator, 14; makes a survey of the St Lawrence and Gulf, 177-8.

Coureurs de bois, the, 32.

Cunard brothers, merchants in Halifax, 138, 145, 146.

Cunard, Samuel, founds the Cunard Line, 145-6.

Derby, Elias, the first American millionaire, 70.

Devonshire ships, annual round of, 67.

'Don de Dieu,' Champlain's ship, 55.

Dory, the, 27; the schooner's tender, 159-61.

Drake, Sir Francis, sails round the world, 52.

'Dreadnought,' her record run, 102.

Dug-out, the, 18, 19-20.

Durham boat, the, 27-8.

East India Docks in London, famous clipper race to, 102-3.

Egyptians, as shipbuilders, 49, 50, 86.

'Empress of Ireland,' loss of, with over a thousand lives, off Rimouski, 151.

English-speaking people, sea terms in speech of, 8-9.

Eskimos, and whaling, 164.

Fletcher of Rye, his nautical invention, 46-7, 50.

Fort Langley, Simpson reaches, 40.

Fort St James, Simpson's royal progress at, 39-40.

French Canadians, sea terms in speech of, 10; and whaling, 58-9, 164.

'Frontenac,' the, on the Great Lakes, 135.

Fur trade under the French and the British, 31-3; voyages in connection with, 33, 37-40.

'Galiote,' the, built by the Sovereign Council, 59.

George V, his voyage across the Atlantic, 102.

Germany, her navy, 182-3, 187.

Goudie, James, builder of the 'Royal William,' 137-8, 139, 141.

'Grace Carter,' her record trip, 102.

'Grande Hermine,' Cartier's ship, 49, 50.

Grand Portage, the, 31.

Great Britain, preponderance of her ships, 7-8, 51; her command of the sea, 15, 53, 56-7, 73, 76, 102, 177; weakness of her Board of Trade regulations, 99; her tonnage under construction in 1913, 153; her consular service for Canada, 176; colonial contributions to the Royal Navy, 183-8.

Great Lakes, why called, 1; the first vessel on, 60; trade on, 71-3.

'Great Republic,' her canvas, 105.

Grenfell, Dr, in Mission to Deep Sea Fishermen, 172.

Halifax, lumbering and shipbuilding at, 70; privateers of, 182.

'Hamilton Campbell Kidston,' a famous ship, 80.

Hare, Dr, in Mission to Deep Sea Fishermen, 172.

Hell ships, 94-5, 98.

Hennepin, Father, his description of 'Le Griffon,' 61.

Henry, John, a Quebec founder, 137-8.

Henry, Commodore, and the 'Royal William,' 143.

'Hercules,' a tug, 134.

Hudson Bay, conflicts between French and British in, 62-3; place for fur, 64.

Hudson's Bay Company, its maritime trade, 63.

Hundred Years' War, the second, 56.

Hurricane, a ship in a, 120-7.

Iberville, the French naval hero of Canada, 63, 179.

Indians, and whaling, 164.

Jackson, John, engines the first Canadian steamer, 131.

Japan, her naval victory at Tsu-shima, 183.

Jefferys' map of the French dominions in America, 28-9.

'Jemsetgee Cursetgee,' built at Moncton, 80.

Kayaks of the Eskimos, the, 15, 24-5

Kingston, shipping at, 72.

'Konstanz,' longevity of the, 79.

Labrador, British supremacy at, 63, 67.

Lachine Canal, 135.

'Lady Washington,' curious history of the, 73.

Lake Erie, shipping on, 72-73.

Larboard, origin of word, 118.

La Salle, builds the 'Le Griffon,' 60.

'Lasca,' her record trip, 102.

'Le Griffon,' her short career, 60-1, 180.

Leif Ericson, a Norse explorer, 41, 45.

'Lightning,' her record run, 103.

Lloyd's, and Canadian shipping, 77-8; composition and method of, 174-5.

Log, the simplest type of craft, 17-18.

Louisbourg, a universal port of call, 62.

Macdonald, Archibald, his account of Simpson's canoe voyage, 39, 40.

M'Dougall, John, master of the 'Royal William,' 137-8, 142-3.

M'Gillivray, with Simpson at Fort St James, 40.

M'Kay, Donald, a shipbuilder of Boston, 103.

Mackenzie, Alexander, his achievement with a canoe, 16-17.

Mackenzie, a shipbuilder at Pictou, 79-80.

Mackinaw boat, the, 37.

Marine and Fisheries Department in Canada, 175-7.

Marine insurance, 173-5.

'Mary,' her cargo to and from Quebec, 64-5.

Mercantile marine, importance of, 12.

Molson, John, owner of the first Canadian steamer, 130-1, 132-3; his first tender to supply steamer transport for military purposes, 133-4.

Monroe Doctrine, the, 186.

Montreal, position of, 2; furs collected at, 71.

Nantucket Island, British whaling at, 58.

Nascaupees, and the fur trade, 33.

Naval architecture, improvement of, 66.

Naval history, ignorance concerning, 13-14.

Navigation laws, the, 68-9; repealed, 74.

New Brunswick, shipbuilding in, 75-6.

Newfoundland, 2; in relation to Canada, 5; and knowledge of the sea, 12; boats of various countries at, 51; British supremacy at, 63, 64; fisheries of, 155, 157-8.

New France, nautical history of, 54 note; nautical advantages of, 58.

New Zealand, and the British Navy, 183, 185.

Norsemen. See Norwegians.

Norway House, field headquarters of the Hudson's Bay Company, 38, 39.

Norwegians, seamanship of, 12, 44-5; and whaling, 168-9.

Nova Scotia, shipbuilding in, 75; whalers of, 165. See Bluenose craft.

'Ontario,' founders in Lake Ontario, 71, 135.

Oomiak, the Eskimo cargo boat, 25.

Paddling, the art of, 34.

Paddock, Ichabod, a whaling master at Cape Cod, 58.

'Parisian,' the first steamer to be fitted with bilge keels, 148.

'Pélican,' d'Iberville's ship, 63.

Perel, Captain John, his ship wrecked in attempt to establish trade with New France, 64.

Pett, Phineas, ship designer, 56.

'Phoenix,' her record, 136.

Pont-Gravé, builds two vessels in Canada, 59.

Pork-eaters, 31-2.

Portuguese, ships of, 53.

Provincial marine, the, 181.

Punt, the, 27.

Quebec, shipbuilding at, 71, 75; and the launching of the 'Royal William,' 139-40.

Quebec and Halifax Navigation Company, builds the 'Royal William,' 138.

Queenston, trade at, 72.

Raft, the, 18-19.

Raleigh, Sir Walter, on striking topmasts, 53.

Rapids, running of, 35-6.

'R. C. Rickmers,' the largest sailing ship in the world, 105.

Richelieu and Ontario Navigation Company, 148-50.

Rideau Canal, 136.

Ross, firm of shipbuilders at Quebec, 79.

Royal National Mission to Deep Sea Fishermen, its good work, 172.

Royal Navy. See under Great Britain.

'Royal William,' first steamer to cross the Atlantic entirely under steam, 136-43; first steamer to fire a shot in action, 143-4; her records, 144-5.

Sailing craft, three types of, 17-37, 129-30. See under names of craft.

Sails: the simple square of the Vikings, 43-4; invention of the fore-and-aft-trimmed sails, 46-7, 50, 65-7; sails of a ship, 105-7; setting and trimming, 107-9, 127; in a squall, 109-10; in an Antarctic hurricane, 120-5.

St Charles river, shipbuilding yards at, 61.

'St Jean,' wrecked on Anticosti, 64.

'St John,' first steamer in Canadian salt water, 136.

St Lawrence river system, 1-3; and France, 63.

St Lawrence Steamboat Company, 134-5.

Saint-Onge, Roberval's pilot, 51.

Salter Brothers, shipbuilders at Moncton, 80.

'Santa Maria,' Columbus's ship, 49-50.

'Savannah,' her claims disproved, 136-7, 141.

Schooner, handiness of the, 159, 161.

Seamen's Institutes, benefit of, 171-2.

Seppings, Sir Robert, chief constructor of the Navy, 85, 86.

Shipbuilding: in Canada, 14, 59-60, 61; comparison between English and French, 57; construction and launching of a ship, 82-91, 153-4.

Shipping, in the eighteenth century, 69-70; in the nineteenth, 74-5.

Ships, short terms designating the nationality of, 93.

Simpson, Sir George, governor of the Hudson's Bay Company, 29, 36; his tour of inspection, 37-40.

'Sophia,' her record trip, 72.

South Africa and the British Navy, 183, 185.

Sovereign of the Seas,' surpasses all records, 56.

Sovereign Council of New France, builds the 'Galiote,' 59.

Spain, her Armada, 52; superiority of her ships, 53.

Squall, how to manage a ship in a, 109-10.

Starboard, origin of word, 118.

Steam craft, types of, 151-2.

Steam-engine, development of, 153.

Steering a ship, 119-20.

'Swiftsure,' an early steamer in Canada, 132-3.

'Taeping,' wins famous clipper race, 103.

Talon, Jean, encourages shipbuilding in Canada, 59-60.

Teabout, Henry, an American shipbuilder in Canada, 135.

Torrance Line, the, 135.

'Tug, The,' first towboat in the world, 134.

Tug, the handiest all-round craft, 151-2.

United Empire Loyalists, settle in Maritime Provinces, 70-71.

United States, her tonnage threatens British supremacy, 53, 74; navy of, 183.

Vancouver, George, navigates the Pacific coast, 178.

Vetch, Samuel, son of an Edinburgh minister, his misfortune, 65.

'Victoria,' a cruise on the, 103-104, 113-28.

'Victorian,' a turbine steamer, 148.

'Victory,' the, Nelson's ship, 79.

Vikings, voyages of the, 41-42; their ships, 42-5, 48, 66, 67.

'Virginian,' a turbine steamer, 148.

Voyageurs, the, 28, 31-2; in conjunction with the Indians, 32-3; Sir George Simpson on, 38, 39.

War of 1812, effect of on Canadian shipping trade, 71-72, 73; effect of American naval victories in the, 180; and Halifax privateers, 182.

Watt, James, improver of the steam-engine, 130.

Welland Canal, 135.

Welsh ships, annual round of, 67.

Whaling, development and dangers of, 163-70.

Winds, different, 105.

Yankee clippers, superiority of, 95-6; crews of, 96-7.

Yankees, and whaling, 168.

York boat, the, 36.

York Factory, Sir George Simpson's tour from, 38-9.

{201}

THE CHRONICLES OF CANADA

Edited by George M. Wrong and H. H. Langton of the University of Toronto

A series of thirty-two freshly-written narratives for popular reading, designed to set forth, in historic continuity, the principal events and movements in Canada, from the Norse Voyages to the Railway Builders.