Part 98
=Perekop.= An isthmus 5 miles broad, connecting the Crimea with the mainland. It was called by the Tartars Orkapou, “gate of the Isthmus,” which the Russians changed to its present name, which signifies a barren ditch. The Tartar fortress of the same name, which was situated on this isthmus, was taken and destroyed by the Russian marshal Münich in 1736, by assault, although it was defended by 1000 Janissaries and 100,000 Tartars. It was again strongly fortified by the khan, but was again taken by the Russians in 1771, who have since retained it.
=Peremptory.= Whatever is absolute and final, not to be altered, renewed, or restrained. _Peremptory execution_, what takes place immediately.
=Perfidious.= Treacherous; false to trust; guilty of violated faith; hence a perfidious foe. War, however melancholy in its effects, and frequently unjustifiable in its cause and progress, is nevertheless, among civilized nations, so far governed by certain principles of honor as to render the observance of established laws and customs an object of general acquiescence. When two or more countries are engaged in a hostile contest, whatever belligerent party grossly deviates from those rules is deservedly stamped with infamy, and justly called a _perfidious_ foe.
=Perfidy.= Want of faith; treachery.
=Perforated Cake Powder.= See GUNPOWDER.
=Périgueux.= A town of France, capital of the department of Dordogne, 296 miles south-southwest from Paris. Périgueux occupies the site of the ancient Vesunna, which was at the time of the Roman invasion the capital of the Petrocorii. Under the empire, it was a place of no small importance, as it stood at the junction of five roads, and was strongly fortified. It was ceded, along with Aquitaine, to the English by Louis IX. After having been recovered by the French, the town was again lost; but it was finally taken from the English by Charles V. During the civil wars of the Reformation, it was a stronghold of the Protestants till the year 1581; and it was not till 1653 that it came into the power of the crown.
=Peril.= Instant or impending danger; risk; hazard; jeopardy; exposure to injury, loss, or destruction.
=Peril.= To expose to danger; to hazard; to risk, etc.
=Perim.= A small island belonging to Great Britain, situated in the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, at the entrance to the Red Sea, about 1 mile distant from the Arabian, and about 13 miles from the African coast. On its southwest side is an excellent harbor, capable of accommodating 40 men-of-war. Fortifications have been erected on the island, and the guns command the strait on both sides. It was first occupied by the English in 1799, and held by them as a check upon the designs of the French, who were then in Egypt. It was abandoned in 1801, but was reoccupied by Great Britain in February, 1857, with a view to the protection of her Indian possessions, which were thought to be exposed to some chance of danger from the opening of the Suez Canal.
=Perjury.= False swearing; the act or crime of willfully making a false oath, when lawfully administered; or the crime committed when a lawful oath is administered, in some judicial proceeding, to a person who swears willfully, absolutely, and falsely in a matter material to the issue. For punishment of persons convicted of perjury, see APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 60 and 62.
=Perkernucka.= Petty officers are so called in India.
=Perm.= A government of Russia, situated partly in Russia in Europe and partly in Russia in Asia. It was invaded and ruined by the Mongols in the 13th century.
=Permanent Fortification.= See FORTIFICATION.
=Permanent Rank.= A rank in the military service which does not cease with any particular service, or locality of circumstances; in opposition to local or temporary rank.
=Péronne.= A town of France, in the department of Somme, 30 miles east of Amiens. Louis XI. of France, having placed himself in the power of the Duke of Burgundy, was forced to sign the treaty of Péronne, confirming those of Arras and Conflans, with several humiliating stipulations, October 14, 1468. Louis XI. had promised Champagne and Brié as appanages to his brother Charles, duke of Berry, not intending to keep his word, apprehending that those provinces, being so near Burgundy, would prove a fresh source of broils and disputes. Péronne was a place of much importance in the Middle Ages, and bore the name of _La Pucelle_ (“The Maiden City”), as it was never captured till Wellington took it eight days after the battle of Waterloo.
=Perpendicular Direction.= In the march of a line, is the direction at right angles to the line which each man should take in a direct movement to the front. Without the strictest attention is paid to this essential principle in all movements, the greatest irregularity, and ultimately the greatest confusion, must ensue. Perpendicular and parallel movements constitute, indeed, the whole system of good marching. When several columns, divisions, or companies advance, the lines and directions of marching must be strictly perpendicular and parallel to each other, otherwise the distance will be lost, and the ultimate object of forming a correct line must be defeated.
=Perpendicular Fortification.= Owes its origin to the Marquis de Montalembert, a distinguished French general, who published his works upon the subject in 1776. Vauban had, it was admitted, rendered the art of attack superior to that of defense. Montalembert strove to reverse this relation, and in his endeavors, rejected entirely the bastion system of the older engineers. Instead of the occasional bastions, with intervening curtains, with which they surrounded their _enceinte_, he broke the whole polygon into salient and re-entering angles, the latter being generally at right angles. Before the connected redans thus formed were counterguards of low elevation and ravelins, to which the approaches were through casemated _caponnieres_. In the salient angle of each redan he built a brick tower, 40 feet in diameter, twelve-sided, and four stories high. The second and third tiers were built for heavy guns, and the upper loop-holed for musketry. In the centre of the tower was a circular _reduit_, intended as a last refuge for the garrison. Montalembert maintained that from these towers every possible approach could be commanded, which to a great extent is true; but it must be also remembered that the greater space a gun commands, by so much the more is it raised above the plain, and rendered visible. These towers would have little chance against the rifled ordnance of the present day. Montalembert’s system was violently attacked by the French engineers, but Carnot subsequently adopted it, with some modifications, and it enters largely into the modern German defensive works. The system has never, however, found favor with British engineers.
=Perpendicular, Gunner’s.= See GUNNER’S LEVEL.
=Perpignan.= A town of France, in the department of the Eastern Pyrenees, situated on the Tet, 35 miles from Narbonne. It commands the passage by the Eastern Pyrenees from Spain into France, and is defended on the south by a citadel and by ramparts flanked with bastions, and protected by raised works. Perpignan now ranks as one of the first strongholds in France. In 1474 the town was taken by Louis XI. of France, but having been restored to Spain, it was again taken by Louis XIII. in 1642, and, along with the province of Roussillon, finally ceded to France by the treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659. In 1793 a battle was fought in its neighborhood between the Spaniards and the French, in which the former were defeated.
=Perrhæbi.= A powerful and warlike Pelasgis people, who, according to Strabo, migrated from Eubœa to the mainland, and settled in the districts of Hestiætos and Pelasgiotis in Thessaly. The Perrhæbi were members of the Amphictyonic League. At an early period they were subdued by the Lapithæ; at the time of the Peloponnesian war they were subject to the Thessalians, and subsequently to Philip of Macedon; but at the time of the Roman wars in Greece they appear independent of Macedonia.
=Perrières.= A kind of short mortars formerly much used for throwing stone shot.
=Persepolis.= An ancient city, the capital of Persia at the time of the invasion of Alexander the Great, and the seat of the chief palaces of the Persian kings. The city is said to have been burned by Alexander, and is not subsequently mentioned in history except in the second book of the Maccabees, where it is stated that Antiochus Epiphanes made a fruitless effort to plunder its temples. In the later times of the Mohammedan rule, the fortress of _Istakhr_ seems to have occupied the place of Persepolis.
=Persia= (Per. _Iran_). A country of Asia, which may be considered as the most opulent and powerful of any that lie to the west of India; it is bounded on the west by Turkey in Asia, north by Caucasus, the Caspian Sea, and Asiatic Russia, east by Afghanistan and Beloochistan, and south by the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea. The Persians, as a nation, first rose into notice on the ruins of the great empires founded on the Euphrates. Babylon was taken by Cyrus in 638 B.C., and soon after he extended it more widely than any that had been previously established in the world. It comprised, on one side, the west of India, and on the other, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt; and the valor, indeed, with which the Greeks defended their small territory, alone prevented him from annexing a considerable part of Europe to his domains. After a feeble struggle, it succumbed to the brave and disciplined armies of Alexander, who won the entire empire of Darius Codomanus for his own by force of arms, in 331. After his death, his immense possessions were divided among his generals; but Greeks and Greek sovereigns continued during several centuries to reign over Western Asia. About 2 B.C. Artaxerxes founded the monarchy of the Parthians; and in 3 A.D. the dynasty of the Sassanidæ arose, who restored the name, with the religion and laws, of ancient Persia. They were overthrown by the Mohammedan invaders, who suffered in their turn from the successive invasions of the country by the descendants of Genghis Khan, Tamerlane, and the Turks, who entirely changed the aspect of Western Asia. At length, in 1501, a native dynasty again arose, under Ismael Shah, who placed himself on the throne. After the reign of Abbas the Great, who died in 1628, the princes of the Safi dynasty became enervated by luxury and dissipation, and Persia, in the beginning of the last century, was overrun by the Afghans, who carried fire and sword throughout the whole country, and reduced its proudest capitals to ashes. The atrocities of the Afghans were avenged, and the independence of Persia vindicated, by Nadir Shah; but though the victories of this daring chief threw a lustre on his country, it was almost torn to pieces after his death by civil war, till the fortune of arms gave a decided superiority to Kerim Khan. His death gave rise to another disputed succession, with civil wars as furious as before. At length Aga-Mohammed, a eunuch, raised himself in 1795 by crimes and daring to the sovereignty, and not only held it during his lifetime, but transmitted it to his nephew, who assumed the title of Feth Ali Shah, and subdued the rebellious tribes in Khorassan, but was dragged into a war with Russia, in which he lost the power of Derbend and several districts on the Kur. In 1848, Nasr-ed-Din, the great-grandson of Feth Ali, succeeded to the throne, and in consequence of the capture of Herat by the Persians in 1856, war was declared against them by Great Britain. Bushire was occupied, and the Persian troops were twice defeated by Gen. Outram at Kooshab and Mohammerah in the following year. These victories were followed by the conclusion of a treaty of peace, April, 1857, and the evacuation of Herat by the Persians in the month of July.
=Personnel= (_Fr._). All the officers and men, military and civil, composing an army, or any part of one, as opposed to _matériel_.
=Personnel of a Battery.= All officers and men necessary for the manœuvre, management, and care of a battery.
=Perspective.= Is the art of drawing the resemblance of objects on a plane surface, as the objects themselves appear to the eye, etc.
=Perth.= The principal town of Perthshire, and formerly the metropolis of Scotland, situated on the Tay, which is crossed here by a fine stone bridge, 33 miles from Edinburgh. It is one of the most ancient towns of Scotland. It is a generally received opinion that Perth was built and fortified by Agricola, who erected a citadel to maintain his conquests, and check the wild spirit of the savage natives. In 1298, after the battle of Falkirk, Edward I. fortified Perth and rebuilt the walls in the strongest manner. The worthy burgesses of this town seem to have been men of mettle in those days, and on various occasions sallying forth from behind their walls, set fire to the castles of their haughty neighbors, when the latter had forbidden their vassals to carry provisions to the city. In the year 1311, Robert Bruce laid siege to the town, but was obliged to withdraw his troops, after various unsuccessful attempts to take it; but subsequently, choosing a dark night, he led a selected band of determined men against it, scaled the walls, and carried the town sword in hand, the king himself being the second man who entered the place. About the beginning of the 14th century, the famous combat between the Clan Chattan and the Clan Quhele, or Clan Kay, took place on the North Inch, and was decided in favor of the former, partly by the bravery of a citizen or burgess called Harry Wind, whom the chief of the Clan Chattan had engaged on the spot to supply the place of one of his men who had failed to appear. In 1544, the regent, at the instigation of Cardinal Bethune, turned Lord Ruthven, provost of the town, out of his office, and conferred it upon Chartres of Kinfauns. The citizens, however, resisted the attempt, and repulsed, in a smart skirmish, the cardinal’s nominee, who came to enter upon his duties at the head of an armed force. In 1559, after a riotous insurrection, during which the Catholic churches were demolished, the queen determined to inflict the severest vengeance on the Reformers. Both parties took the field; negotiations ensued; Perth was thrown open to the queen, and occupied by a French garrison. Relief from the insolence and exactions of the garrison was only obtained after a regular siege by the Reformers. On June 26, Lord Ruthven attacked the town on the west, and Provost Halyburton of Dundee fired into it from the bridge, and speedily obliged the garrison to capitulate. Subsequently, Argyle, and Stewart, prior of St. Andrews, marched out of Perth with 300 citizens, resolved to prosecute the Reformation, or perish in the attempt. The people joined them everywhere as they proceeded, and before they reached Stirling their numbers had increased to 5000. The gates of Stirling and every other town in their way were thrown open to receive them. They, without violence, took possession of Edinburgh, cast the images out of its churches, and placed in them ministers of the Reformation.
=Peru.= A republic of South America, formed out of the former Spanish viceroyalty of the same name. The first information received of the country by the Spaniards was obtained from a young cacique in the neighborhood of the Isthmus of Darien about the year 1511. In 1513, Vasco Nuñez de Balboa crossed the mountains which separated the two oceans, and took possession of the Pacific in the name of the king of Castile. He extended his discoveries many leagues southward, but appears not to have reached the territory of Peru. In 1525, Francisco Pizarro, a soldier of mean birth but of daring spirit, who had accompanied Balboa in the previous expedition, embarking at Panama with about 100 men, landed in Peru, and spent three years in exploring the country. Having returned to Spain with presents of gold and jewels for the king, he was sent out with orders to effect the conquest of the newly-discovered country. Recrossing the ocean with 180 men and 27 horses, he again set sail from Panama, and receiving some further reinforcements at Puerto Viejo and Puna, now considered himself in a fit position to enter upon the proper scene of his labors. He accordingly crossed over to Tumbez, and there learned that the country had for some time been distracted by a civil war between Huascar and Atahuallpa, two sons of the late inca. Pizarro saw at once the importance to him and his cause of this state of the country. After some time spent in reconnoitring, he fixed upon a fertile spot in the rich valley of Tangarala as a site for a settlement. Here he established a town which he called San Miguel. On September 24, 1532, leaving 50 men as a guard for this new settlement, he started out with 167 men, 67 of whom were cavalry, to meet the inca Atahuallpa, who now victorious over his brother was encamped with his army about ten or twelve days’ journey off. His force was everywhere received with kindness; an envoy from the inca was sent with presents to meet and invite him to an interview at Caxamarca. The Spaniards arrived here November 15, 1532, and treacherously prepared to use the unsuspecting kindness of the Peruvians as the means of their destruction. When at the appointed time the inca accompanied by his nobles and retinue was proceeding to the place of interview, he and his followers were assailed by the Spaniards who were concealed in the neighboring buildings, thousands of the unsuspecting and unarmed natives were slain, and Atahuallpa himself taken prisoner. An immense ransom was offered for him; it was accepted by Pizarro, who, however, basely refused to give up his prisoner, but after a mockery of a trial put him to death. For many years the country was in a state of war and anarchy, resulting finally in Pizarro becoming master of Peru in 1546, and it became a viceroyalty of Spain. In its subsequent history there is matter of little interest till the war of independence, which was proclaimed in 1821 by Gen. San Martin, and successfully terminated by Bolivar, who, after a succession of engagements, the most notable of which was that of Ayacucho (which see), finally drove the Spaniards from Callao, their last stronghold, July 29, 1826. The country has since on several occasions been the scene of those insurrections to which the states of Spanish America have been subject. In 1879 war was proclaimed between Peru and Chili, which has recently terminated in a complete victory for the latter.
=Perugia= (anc. _Perusia_). A city of Central Italy, 10 miles east of the lake of the same name, and 85 north of Rome. It formed in ancient times one of the twelve Etrurian republics. In conjunction with other cities of Etruria, it long resisted the power of the Romans, but was finally ruined by the latter, having been defeated in two engagements, 309 and 295 B.C., and becoming subject to Rome in 294. It is memorable in the civil wars as the refuge of L. Antonius, the brother of the triumvir, when unable to oppose the progress of Octavianus. It was held by the latter for some months and was compelled to surrender through famine, and burned to the ground in 40 B.C. It was afterwards rebuilt by Augustus, and was captured by the Goths under Totila at the fall of the Western empire. It was afterwards united to the Papal States, and in 1860 became part of the kingdom of Italy.
=Perugia, Lake of.= See TRASIMENUS LACUS.
=Perusia.= See PERUGIA.
=Pescara.= A town of Italy, province of Chieti. It was formerly strongly fortified, and has stood many sieges.
=Peschiera.= A frontier town and fortress of Italy, in Lombardy, at the south extremity of the Lake of Garda, 20 miles north-northwest from Mantua. Peschiera commands the right bank of the river Mincio. During the French republican war, it was a simple pentagon. Its fortifications, however, have been greatly strengthened by the Austrians. It is defended by walls and by forts, lunettes, fosses, and a covered way; and the purpose which it is mainly intended to serve, besides that of forming an intrenched camp capable of accommodating a considerable number of troops, is to harass an army attempting to cross the Mincio by Goito or Valeggio. It has been taken frequently by siege, by the French in 1796; by the Austrians and Russians, 1799; by the French again, 1801; given up by them, 1814; taken by the Sardinian troops under Charles Albert, May 30, 1848; retaken by Radetzky, 1849. It was invested by the Sardinians in June, 1859, after the battle of Solferino. The conclusion of the treaty of Villafranca, however (July 11, 1859), relieved Peschiera from a siege, and it was included in the kingdom of Italy by treaty of Vienna, 1866.
=Peshawur.= A city of British India, capital of the province of Peshawur (or Peshawer), about 18 miles east of the eastern extremity of the Khyber Pass. It was founded by the Mogul emperor Akbar. Runjeet Singh took it after his victory over the Afghans at Noushera, and destroyed many of its finest buildings.
=Pesth.= A city of Hungary, situated on the Danube, opposite to Buda, with which it is connected by a bridge of boats three-quarters of a mile in length. It was repeatedly taken and besieged in the wars of Hungary, particularly in the long contests with the Turks. The great insurrection broke out here September 28, 1848. Buda-Pesth was taken by the Imperialists, January 5, 1849. The Hungarians afterwards defeated the Austrians, who were obliged to evacuate it April 18, 1849; but the latter, under Gen. Hentzi, occupied Buda, and a severe contest began between the two parties. On May 4, Görgei, with an army of 40,000 Hungarians, occupied the heights above Buda, and began to bombard that town; while the Austrians in their turn directed their artillery against the lower city of Pesth. On May 16, the Hungarians made an unsuccessful attack on Buda, but on the 20th the place was taken by assault, after an obstinate and bloody struggle.
=Pestle.= An instrument used in the fabrication of gunpowder.
=Petards.= Are instruments used for blowing open gates, demolishing palisades, etc. They consist of a half-cone of thick iron, filled with powder and ball; they are usually fastened to a plank, and the latter is provided with hooks to allow of its being attached securely to a gate, etc. The petard has been almost universally superseded by the use of powder-bags.
=Petardeer=, or =Petardier=. One who manages petards.
=Petelia=, or =Petilia= (now _Strongoli_). An ancient Greek town on the eastern coast of Bruttium; founded, according to tradition, by Philoctetes. It was situated north of Croton, to whose territory it originally belonged, but it was afterward conquered by the Lucanians. It remained faithful to the Romans when the other cities of Bruttium revolted to Hannibal, and it was not till after a long and desperate resistance that it was taken by one of Hannibal’s generals.
=Peterero=, or =Pedrero=. A short piece of chambered ordnance was formerly so called.