Part 91
=Oregon.= One of the Pacific States of the American Confederacy. Oregon was the name formerly given to the whole territory north of the Rocky Mountains, and was first claimed by the Spanish government, and next by the government of the United States, as far as lat. 54° 40′ N. This latter claim was resisted by the British government, which asserted a right to the entire territory, and in 1818 a treaty was made, and renewed in 1827, giving joint occupation to the disputed territory. In 1846 a treaty was concluded, by which the boundary was settled on the 49th parallel. Previous to this latter treaty (1839) emigration from the United States, for the purpose of settlement, commenced, and it continued steadily until the opening of the gold mines in California, which attracted a great many emigrants. In 1849 it formed a Territorial government, and in 1859 it was admitted into the Union as a State. This State has been troubled greatly by Indians, and has been the scene of several wars in earlier days, notably, in 1853, on Rogue River; in 1855, when a general outbreak took place, of which the following is a brief summary: In 1855 a war broke out between the whites and the Indians of Washington Territory. The head and front of the outbreak on the part of the Indians was Kam-ai-a-kin. He took this stand from a fixed principle: that of resisting all encroachments on the part of the whites. He had seen the fate of the Indian race in the Willamette Valley, and he determined to anticipate such a result with regard to his own people, and, if possible, to prevent it. When Gov. Stevens made his arbitrary treaties with him, and left him no discretion but to sell his land; and when the miners began to traverse his country, he concluded that the hour had arrived to fight, and he called to his aid as many of the adjoining tribes as he could persuade into it. The manner in which the treaties on Puget Sound were conducted created great dissatisfaction among the Indians, and they were quite ready to join Kam-ai-a-kin. The war commenced by the killing of miners, who were picked off in the Yakama country as they were going to Fort Colville, scarcely a month after the council which was held at Walla Walla. The killing of the agent Bolen set the war in a blaze. The small detachment of troops sent to chastise them was driven back. This success on the part of the Klickatats encouraged the Sound Indians, who also took up arms, and in the absence of troops, fell upon and killed the inhabitants of White River; but the wholesale slaughter of women and children by a party under the command of Major Lupton on October 8, 1855, drove the Indians to desperation and caused them to commence the war in earnest; hostilities continued until the summer of 1856. Also, in later years, the Modoc war (1872), the Nez Pérces (1877), and the Bannock war (1878).
=Oreillere= (_Fr._). Oreillet, ear-piece of an ancient helmet, shaped like an oyster-shell, for protecting the ear and cheek.
=Oreillon= (_Fr._). Ear of a sword, languet, or small slip of metal on the hilt, which, when the sword is sheathed, extends along the scabbard.
=Organization.= The act of assigning and putting troops into such uniform state of discipline as may fit them to co-operate on any service. _Organization_ may be said to be begun by grouping those combatants who have the same mode of action. These groups are known as “arms of service.” An arm of service may be defined to be “a union of combatants having the same mode of action.” There are four of these arms in modern armies, viz.: _Infantry_, _Cavalry_, _Artillery_, and _Engineers_. These four arms form the principal part of a mobilized army, and as they or their representatives are always formed into a line of battle to resist the attack of an enemy, or to make an attack, they are generally known as the “line of the army” or “troops of the line,” to distinguish them from other bodies of men who form parts of an army. These _arms_ are subdivided into fractions for the purpose of instruction and of supply. The unit for instruction and the unit for supply may be the same or different. The unit of supply, as a general rule, is constant, and is also usually the unit of instruction in discipline. The unit of instruction in tactics will depend upon circumstances, and upon the kind of movements the commander desires to make. The common unit for the four arms, for supplying the men’s wants and for instruction in discipline, is the “company.” This unit receives, at other times, other names, depending upon circumstances. For instance, a _battery_ of artillery is the same as company; the term _squadron_ of cavalry frequently means a company, etc.
_A company_ consists of a given number of men commanded by a commissioned officer who has the rank of captain. Two, sometimes three, and even more commissioned officers of a grade below that of captain are appointed to assist the captain in the discharge of his duties. These officers have the grade of lieutenant. Their number and the number of men forming a company are fixed by law. A certain number are selected from the men and appointed non-commissioned officers, with the rank of sergeant or of corporal. These non-commissioned officers are used to instruct the men in their military duties and in discipline. The whole company should be divided into _squads_ of equal numbers, and each squad placed under the charge of a non-commissioned officer, who should be held responsible for the cleanliness of the men of his squad, not only as to their persons, clothing, and arms, but as to their tents or quarters. The _company_, with its size based on the theory that it must not be larger than one man on foot can thoroughly command in person, is the unit of organization. Two or three or more companies form a _battalion_. Four, and at the outside, five companies placed in line form, in these times, so extended a line that a single person in immediate and personal command of them will find difficulty in making himself heard and understood throughout the entire line. For this reason the battalion should not, as a rule, contain more than four companies.
_The battalion_ is the _tactical_ unit, both for instruction in tactics and in the execution of its movements. The battalion is sometimes made a unit of administration, and forms a complete organization under the command of a commissioned officer of the grade of major or lieutenant-colonel. The more usual rule is to increase the number of companies so as to have enough to form at least two battalions, and with these companies to form the organization known as a _regiment_.
_The regiment_ is always an _administrative_ unit, and is commanded by a commissioned officer who has the grade of _colonel_. The colonel is charged with the proper administration of the supplies for the regiment, and with preserving good order and promoting discipline. He takes every opportunity to instruct both the officers and men in the principles and details of all movements that ought in any case to be made by a battalion. Upon the organization of a regiment, the company officers are assigned to companies, and each company is designated by a letter of the alphabet. Upon the recommendation of the captains, the colonel appoints the non-commissioned officers of the companies. He appoints an adjutant from the lieutenants of the regiment, and a non-commissioned staff from the enlisted men, to assist him in his duties. He selects from the lieutenants a quartermaster, whose appointment is confirmed by the Secretary of War.
The elements of organization for the other three arms of service are practically the same, being that of a company or similar body of men under the command of a captain, and these units grouped together into a battalion or regimental organization for administrative purposes. This subdivision into companies and into regiments is most essential for instruction in discipline.
_Discipline_ is an indispensable condition for the existence of a good army. It imparts _cohesion_ and _flexibility_ to the armed mass. Without discipline an army is only an armed mob over which a commander would have no control, and upon which he could not rely in the execution of his plans. When the army is to be mobilized the regiments are brought together and organized into _brigades_ and _divisions_. Two or more regiments form a brigade; two or more brigades form a division. A general officer of the grade of _brigadier-general_ is assigned to the command of a brigade, and one of the grade of _major-general_ to the command of a division. These divisions and brigades may be composed entirely of one arm, or they may be composed of troops belonging to all four of the arms.
_The division_ is the unit of organization and administration of a mobilized army, and is also the _tactical_ unit of the general in command. When the army is very large, three or four divisions are joined together and form an _army corps_. The officer commanding an army corps should be of a higher grade than he who commands a division. This grade in the U. S. army would be that of _lieutenant-general_.
_An army corps_ is most generally composed of all arms of service, and is, to all intents and purposes, an army complete in itself. Two or more army corps or armies would be under the command of the _general_, or of a “general-in-chief.” There has arisen an organization forming an essential part of every army, known as the _general staff_, and divided into corps and departments to which are assigned special duties. In some cases, the term “general staff” is limited to include only those officers who are used by the general to communicate his orders, and to inform him of the general and particular conditions of the troops; and the term “staff department” or “supply department” is used to include those officers whose duties are confined to distinct branches of service having for their object the supply of troops. If the army is one of very great size, the general ordinarily attaches to his headquarters a representative of the three arms of artillery, cavalry, and engineers, giving them the position of staff-officers with the name of “chief of artillery,” “chief of cavalry,” etc. They are required to keep the general informed of the state of supplies, and whatever concerns their particular arm, in a similar manner to that required by the other officers of the staff. The general also appoints from the subordinate officers belonging to his command a certain number of _aides-de-camp_. These officers are _ex officio_ adjutants-general, and receive orders from the general himself. They are confidential officers, who are supposed to be used only in delicate and difficult duties, where they may in a degree represent the general. Hence, they are intrusted to deliver verbal orders which cannot be intrusted with propriety to enlisted men or to the ordinary means of communication.
_Proportion of Arms of Service._--The mass of a modern army is composed of infantry. The amount of cavalry will depend upon the topographical features of the country, being in some cases as much as one-fourth of the infantry, and in others as little as one-tenth. The amount of light artillery depends upon the character of the country. There should be at least two guns to every thousand men. The quantity of heavy artillery, or number of siege-batteries, which enter the composition of an army, will depend to a great extent upon the plan of campaign and the probable use for which they may be intended. The circumstances of the case in each campaign will therefore decide as to the proportion to be employed. The number of engineer troops will depend both on the nature of the country and on the probable amount of work which will be required from this class of troops. Each division should contain at least one company of engineer troops. It is usual, if there be none, to detail one or more companies of infantry to act as engineer soldiers; they are designated as “pioneers.” These engineer troops, or troops acting in that capacity, marching in the advance, make the roads practicable for the command by repairing them, removing obstructions, etc. At the crossing of streams, where bridges are to be made, or where existing bridges are to be repaired to an extent requiring more knowledge of bridge construction than that usually possessed by the pioneer, another detachment of troops belonging to the engineer arm is brought forward to do the work. These troops are known as _pontoniers_, and have special charge of bridge construction for the army. They may be divided into two parts: one to have charge of construction of temporary bridges, especially of floating and trestle bridges, and construction of ferries; the other to have charge of repairs of bridges which have been broken or injured by the enemy, and where quick repair is of importance to an army’s movements. These troops charged with bridge construction usually form a part of the reserve, and are only attached to a division under peculiar circumstances. There should be also in the reserve several companies of sappers and miners; their number, like the heavy artillery, being dependent upon the nature of the campaign.
_The army_, as a machine, is now ready to be used by the general. The next step is to keep it in a condition so that it can be used; in other words, to _preserve_ the fighting condition of the army. The discipline and drill have been cared for, and with the organization just sketched out, the general can move the whole mass as a unit in accordance with his will. The army can be kept ready for use only by supplying all the actual and necessary wants of the soldier, and by keeping him in comfort and good health. To do this there must be ammunition, clothing, food, shelter, medicines, surgical attendance, hospital comforts, etc., provided for his use. Also a good system of recruiting must be adopted, by means of which the natural losses due to sickness and death may be made good.
_The transportation_ of the munitions, equipments, provisions, hospital supplies, tents, engineering tools, bridge equipage and boats, baggage, cooking utensils, etc., necessary for the use of an army moving against an enemy, requires the use of large numbers of wagons and a great number of draught animals, which of course should not exceed the absolute necessity of the service. These accompaniments to the army received from the Romans the name of _impedimenta_, for the reason that they hindered the movement of the army. These supply departments form important parts of the composition of a modern army, and the method of executing the duties assigned them constitutes an important branch of the “science and art of war.”--_Prof. J. B. Wheeler._
=Organize.= To arrange or constitute in parts, each having a special function, act, office, or relation; as, to organize an army, etc.
=Orgue= (Fr. _un orgue_). A term used to express that arrangement or disposition of a certain quantity of musket-barrels in a row, which, by means of a priming train of gunpowder, may be subjected to one general explosion. This machine has been found extremely serviceable in the defense of a low flank, a tenaille, or to prevent an enemy from crossing the ditch of a fortified place.
=Orgues.= Are beams of wood hanging perpendicularly over the entrance of a fortified town, which were formerly used as a portcullis, to be dropped in case of any emergency. They are not now used.
=Orient.= The east or eastern part of the horizon. In surveying, _to orient_ a plan signifies to make its situation or bearing with respect to the four cardinal points.
=Oriflamme=, or =Auriflamme=. A banner which originally belonged to the abbey of St. Denis, and was borne by the counts of Vexin, patrons of that church, but which, after the country of Vexin fell into the hands of the French crown, became the principal banner of the kingdom. It was charged with a saltire wavy or, with rays issuing from the centre crossways. In later times the oriflamme became the insignia of the French infantry. The name seems also to have been given to other flags; the oriflamme borne at Agincourt was an oblong red flag split into five parts.
=Orihuela.= A town of Spain, in Valencia, on the Segura, 31 miles southwest from Alicante. It was a place of some importance in the Moorish invasion, and was held in 713 successfully by Theodoric against Abd-el-Aziz after the battle of the Guadalete. It was conquered in 1265 by Don Jaime of Aragon for his father-in-law, Don Alonso, king of Castile. The city was sacked in 1520 in the civil war at that time raging, and again in the War of the Succession, 1706. It was held for some time in 1837 by the Carlist general Forcadell.
=Orillon.= This may be described as a projection at the shoulder of a bastion beyond the ordinary flank of a curved portion of rampart and parapet, the curve being convex to the ditch. The orillon, introduced during the 17th century, was generally used in conjunction with a retired flank, made ordinarily with a curve concave to the ditch. Both orillon and retired flank are now obsolete.
=Orissa.= An extensive province of Hindostan, in the Deccan. A race of Hindoo princes governed the country till 1592, when they were conquered by the viceroy of Akbar. The French, who had taken possession of a part of the country long known as the Northern Circars, attempted to drive the English (who had formed commercial settlements on the coast) out of India. The result of the contest for supremacy in India between the French and English is well known. The Mahrattas, who had seized a portion of Orissa in 1740, were forced to surrender it to the English in 1803. The soldiers of the East India Company were marched into Orissa at the commencement of the present century, and an engagement was subsequently entered into between the Company and the native chiefs and princes, by which the former bound themselves to perform certain services for the country (as maintaining the river-banks in good repair), while the latter engaged to pay a yearly tribute.
=Orizaba.= A town of Mexico, in the department of Vera Cruz, 60 miles southwest from Vera Cruz. It was occupied by Gen. Prim, in command of the Spanish troops that formed part of the expedition sent by England, France, and Spain to Mexico in March, 1862. A conference was held here shortly after the occupation of the town between the plenipotentiaries of the three powers, when the English and Spanish commissioners determined to withdraw their contingents from Mexico, in accordance with the terms of the treaty of Soledad, while the French on the other hand resolved to push on to the capital, to establish a settled government in the country in lieu of that of Juarez.
=Orkney Islands= (anc. _Orcades_). A cluster of islands in the North Sea, separated from the north coast of Scotland by the Pentland Firth. From an early period the Norsemen resorted to these islands as a convenient spot from which to make a descent on the Scotch and English coasts. In 876 Harald Haarfager conquered both them and the Hebrides; they were conquered by Magnus III. of Norway in 1499, and were ceded to James III. in 1469.
=Orle.= In heraldry, one of the charges known under the charge of sub-ordinaries, said to be the diminutive of a bordure, but differing from it in being detached from the sides of the shield. Or an orle gules was the coat borne by John Baliol. An orle of heraldic charges of any kind denotes a certain number (generally eight) of these charges placed in orle, as in the coat of the old Scottish family of Gladstanes of that Ilk; argent, a savage’s head couped, distilling drops of blood proper, thereon a bonnet composed of bay and holly leaves all proper, within an orle of eight martlets sable.
=Orléans.= An important town of France, capital of the department of Loiret, 75 miles south-southwest from Paris by railway. Orléans, originally called _Genabum_, afterwards _Aureliani_ (probably from the emperor Aurelian), was besieged by Attila in 451, but relieved by the Romans, who here defeated Attila. It afterwards passed into the hands of the Franks, was taken by the Northmen in 855, and again in 865. In 1428 it was besieged by the English under the Duke of Bedford, but was delivered from the besiegers by the inspiriting exertions of Joan of Arc, who on this account is also named the Maid of Orléans. In the civil wars of the 16th century it was besieged in 1563 by the Duke of Guise, who was assassinated before the walls. During the Franco-Prussian war, 1870-71, Orléans was occupied by the Germans, September 27, and evacuated November 10, 1870.
=Ormskirk.= A town of England, county of Lancaster, 12 miles north by east from Liverpool. Near this place, in 1644, the royalists were defeated by the Parliamentary troops with great slaughter.
=Ormus=, or =Ormuz=. A small island in the strait of the same name, at the entrance of the Persian Gulf, and within 10 miles of the Persian coast. It is about 12 miles in circumference, and belongs to the sultan of Muscat. It was occupied by the Portuguese in the 16th century. The town was demolished in 1622 by Shah Abbas, assisted by the English, and its trade was removed to Gombroon.
=Ornamental Fireworks.= See PYROTECHNY.
=Ornaments, Military.= Are those parts of the dress of a soldier which are more for appearance or distinction than for absolute use, as plates for belts, trimmings, etc.
=Orneæ.= An ancient town in Argolis, near the frontiers of the territory of Philius, and 120 stadia from Argus. It was originally independent of Argos, but was subdued by the Argives in the Peloponnesian war, 415 B.C.
=Orteil.= See BERME.
=Ortelsburg.= A town of East Prussia, in the government of Königsberg, 80 miles southeast of Königsberg. Several engagements took place here between the French and Russians in 1807.
=Orthez=, or =Orthes=. A town of France, in the department of the Lower Pyrenees, situated on the Gave de Pau, 25 miles northwest from Pau. It suffered much during the civil wars in France after the Revolution. Near this town the British and Spanish armies commanded by Wellington defeated the French under Soult, February 27, 1814.
=Ortona.= An ancient city of Latium, situated on the confines of the Æquian territory. It is twice mentioned during the wars of the Romans with the latter people: first in 481 B.C., when it was besieged and taken by the Æquians; and again in 457 B.C., when the Æquians by a sudden attack took Corbio, and after putting to the sword the Roman garrison there, made themselves masters of Ortona also; but the consul Horatius engaged and defeated them at Mount Algidus, and after driving them from that position, recovered possession both of Corbio and Ortona. No mention of it is found in later times, and it probably ceased to exist.
=Orvieto.= Called in the time of the Longobards _Urbs Vetus_, of which its present name is a corruption, a city of Italy, province of Perugia; is of Etruscan origin, but of its early history nothing is known. It has been a place of residence and retreat in turbulent times of upwards of thirty popes.
=Osage Indians.= A tribe of aborigines of Dakota stock who are located, to the number of about 2500, on a reservation in Indian Territory. They are divided into eight bands,--the Beavers, Big Chiefs, Big Hills, Black Dogs, Clammores, Half-Breeds, Little Osages, and White Hairs, and have made but little progress in civilization.
=Oschatz.= A town of Saxony, circle of Leipsic, 31 miles east-southeast from Leipsic. It was here that the treaty of peace was concluded between Frederick the Great and the empress Maria Theresa which put an end to the Seven Years’ War, in 1763.