Part 81
=New Mexico.= A Territory of the United States, bounded on the north by Colorado, east by Texas, south by Texas and Mexico, and west by Arizona. The country was explored by the Spaniards in 1537, and was taken possession of by the viceroy of Mexico in the name of the king of Spain towards the latter part of that century. About 1680, the natives, who were an industrious people of Aztec race, provoked by the oppression of their rulers, rose against them and succeeded in driving them from the country. The Spaniards, however, soon regained their foothold, which they succeeded in maintaining until 1822, when Mexico and its dependencies threw off the yoke of Spain. In 1846, Gen. Kearney captured Santa Fé, the capital of New Mexico, and soon after became master of the whole Territory, which was ceded to the United States in 1848, and in 1850 organized as a Territory. In 1854 another portion of Mexican territory gained by purchase was added to it, and subsequently the Territory of Arizona was set off from it, and another portion added to Colorado. During the civil war New Mexico was the theatre of some desperate and hard-fought battles. On February 21, 1862, a Confederate force of Texans about 2500 strong, under Gen. Sibley, defeated the Union forces under Col. Canby at Valverde, about 10 miles from Fort Craig, and captured their guns. The loss of his battery compelled Col. Canby to fall back to Fort Craig, but the enemy was so crippled that he did not attempt to follow, but proceeded to Albuquerque and Santa Fé, both of which towns were evacuated by the Union troops. Soon afterwards a force of 400 Texans going north to reinforce Gen. Sibley were captured by Col. Canby. On March 26, 1862, an engagement took place at Apache Pass, in which 100 Texans were captured, between 300 and 400 killed, and 50 wagons burned. Another engagement took place on the 28th, at Pigeon’s Ranche, 25 miles north of Santa Fé, in which the Confederates lost more prisoners. About the middle of April, Col. Canby concentrating his forces attacked the Texans at Parillo, on the Rio Grande, and after a short action defeated them with great slaughter, and compelled them to fly to the mountains. From this point until they reached Fort Bliss, Texas, their retreat was a succession of disasters. They left in New Mexico more than one-half of their original number as killed, wounded, or prisoners, and every place which they abandoned in their retreat was immediately occupied by Union troops.
=New Model.= In the United States, all cannon made since 1861 are on the new model. This is characterized by the absence of all ornament on the exterior,--the outline is made up of gentle curves as far us possible,--on the inside the bottom of the bore is a semi-ellipsoid.
=New Orleans.= Capital of the State of Louisiana, and commercial metropolis of the Gulf States. It was founded in 1718 by Bienville, the governor of the province of Louisiana under the French, who caused it to be laid out, and levees built, under the direction of the engineer De la Tour. On January 8, 1815, was fought the battle of New Orleans, a few miles below the city, between Gen. Andrew Jackson at the head of the American forces, and the British under Gen. Pakenham, ending in the defeat of the latter with a loss in killed and wounded of nearly 3000 men. The American loss was but 13. In the late civil war, New Orleans held out until 1862, when it surrendered to the Union forces. Gen. Butler was placed in command, but on December 16, 1862, was relieved by Gen. Banks.
=New Ross.= A town in Wexford Co., Southeast Ireland, where Gen. Johnston totally defeated the insurgent Irish under Beauchamp D. Bagenal Harvey, June 4, 1798.
=Newry.= A town in Down Co., Ireland, which was reduced to a ruinous condition in the rebellion of 1641; it was surprised by Sir Con. Magenis, but was retaken by Lord Conway. After the restoration the town was rebuilt. It was burnt by the Duke of Berwick when flying from Schomberg and the English army, and only the castle and a few houses escaped, 1689.
=Newtown-Butler.= A town in Fermanagh Co., Ireland, where, on July 30, 1689, the Enniskilleners under Gustavus Hamilton thoroughly defeated the adherents of James II. commanded by Gen. Maccarty, whom they captured with his artillery, arms, and baggage.
=New Trial.= The privilege of a new trial does not seem to be denied. The provisions therefore are borrowed from common law, and are not held, in either civil or military tribunals, to preclude the accused from having a second trial on his own motion. Officers who sat on the first trial should not be detailed for the new trial; they have formed and expressed opinions. New, or second trial, can only be authorized where the sentence adjudged upon the first trial has been disapproved. After a sentence has been duly approved and has taken effect, the granting of a new trial is beyond the power of a military commander, or the President.
=New York.= One of the Middle States of the United States, and one of the thirteen of the original confederation. The earliest explorations of New York by Europeans were in 1609, by Hendrik Hudson, who took possession of the country on the river which bears his name for the Dutch, and by Champlain, a Frenchman, who explored Lake Champlain from Canada. The English, however, claimed the right of prior discovery, which led to frequent conflicts. The first white settlements were made in the State in 1713, and the early settlers suffered greatly from Indian depredations. In 1690, Schenectady was taken and burned by the savages, and many of the inhabitants massacred. The massacre of the garrison at Fort William Henry by the Indians in 1757 will long be remembered in the annals of New York. The State took an active part in the war of independence, and was the theatre of many important military events. The defeat of Washington at Long Island and at White Plains in the autumn of 1776, the surrender of Burgoyne in October, 1777, and the taking of Stony Point by Wayne in July, 1779, are the most important actions that took place here during the Revolutionary contest. The sanguinary naval battle of Lake Champlain in the war of 1812, in which McDonough defeated the British after a hard-fought action, and several other minor engagements, took place within the limits of New York in the last struggle with Great Britain. During the civil war New York took an active and prominent part in aiding the government in the suppression of the rebellion; her quotas of troops were promptly filled, $40,000,000 being paid in bounties to her volunteers.
=New York.= The chief commercial city of the United States, and the most populous, is situated at the southern extremity of Manhattan Island, at the junction of the Hudson River and the extension of Long Island Sound, known as the East River, about 18 miles from the Atlantic. It was founded in 1613 by Dutch traders, who built two trading forts and four houses on Manhattan Island, and called the settlement New Amsterdam. It was taken by the English in 1664, and its name changed to New York in honor of the Duke of York, brother of Charles II. Nine years later it was recaptured by the Dutch, and its name changed to New Orange in honor of the prince of that title; but in February, 1674, the English obtained possession of it by treaty, and restored the name which they had formerly given it. During the Revolutionary war New York was occupied by the English troops after the battle of Long Island, and was evacuated by them November 25, 1783. In the civil war the city was among the first in manifesting its loyal disposition, and furnished over 116,000 men in support of the Union cause.
=New Zealand.= A group of islands lying in the South Pacific Ocean, discovered by Tasman in 1642. The right of Great Britain to New Zealand was recognized in 1814. An insurrection of the natives (Maoris) took place in March, 1860; several indecisive actions took place between the natives and the militia, March 14-28, 1860; war broke out at Taranaki, and the British were repulsed with loss on June 30; Gen. Pratt defeated the Maoris at Mahoetahi, and destroyed their fortified places November 6. The Maoris were defeated December 29, 1860, January 23, February 24, March 16-18, 1861; the natives surrendered March 19, 1861. The Maoris again resorted to war in May, 1863; Gen. Cameron defeated them at Rangariri November 20; and forced the Maori king to capitulate December 9, 1863. The British were repulsed at Galepa (the gate pah) with loss of officers and men, April 29, 1864. The Maoris were again severely defeated January 25 and February 25, 1864. The Maoris continued in a state of insurrection, but were finally overcome in 1865.
=Nez Percés Indians= (“pierced noses”). A tribe of aborigines of the Sahaptin family, who were located on a reservation in Northern Idaho. In 1877 they broke into open hostilities against the whites, and after a sanguinary struggle under their chief Joseph they were at length captured by Gen. Miles and transported to Indian Territory. Some few escaped to the British possessions, where they still remain.
=Niagara.= Chief town of Lincoln County, in the Canadian province of Ontario, on Lake Ontario. It was burnt down in December, 1813, by the American general McClure on his retreat; it was afterwards rebuilt.
=Niagara, Battle of.= See LUNDY’S LANE.
=Nicæa= (anc. _Nicæensis_, _Nicensis_). Formerly one of the most celebrated cities of Asia, stood on the eastern side of Lake Ascania (now _Iznik_), in Bithynia. At the battle of Nice, 194, the emperor Severus defeated his rival, Niger, who was again defeated at Issus, and soon after taken prisoner and put to death. Under the later emperors of the East, Nicæa long served as a bulwark of Constantinople against the Arabs and Turks; it was taken by the Seljuks in 1078, and became the capital of the sultan Soliman; it was retaken by the first Crusaders in 1097. After the taking of Constantinople by the Venetians and the Franks, and the foundation of the Latin empire there in 1204, the Greek emperor, Theodorus Lascaris, made Nicæa the capital of a separate kingdom, in which his followers maintained themselves with various success against the Latins of Constantinople on the one side, and the Seljuks of Iconium on the other, and in 1261 regained Constantinople. At length, in 1330, Nicæa was finally taken by Orchan, the son of the founder of the Ottoman empire, Othman.
=Nicæa.= A fortress of the Epicnemidian Locrians on the sea, near the pass of Thermopylæ, which it commanded. From its important position it is often mentioned in the wars of Greece with Macedonia and with the Romans. In the former its betrayal to Philip by the Thracian dynast Phalæcus led to the termination of the Sacred war, 346 B.C.; and after various changes it is found at the time of the wars with Rome in the hands of the Ætolians.
=Nicaragua, Republic of.= Formerly a State in the Central American Confederation, from which it withdrew in 1852. The inhabitants of the country are Indians and _mestizoes_, with a scattering of a few whites and negroes. It has been the scene of many revolutions for the last thirty-five years.
=Nice= (It. _Nizza_, anc. _Nicæa_). Chief town since 1860 of the department of the Maritime Alps, France, on both sides of the river Paglione, 100 miles south-southwest from Turin. It was the seat of a colony from Massilia, now Marseilles, and formed part of the Roman empire. It first became important as a stronghold of the Christian religion, which was preached there by Nazarius at an early period. In the Middle Ages it was subject to Genoa, and suffered from the frequent wars, being taken and retaken by the Imperialists and French. It was taken by the Austrians under Melas, 1800; seized and annexed to France, 1792; restored to Sardinia in 1814; again annexed to France in virtue of the treaty of March 24, 1860. The French troops entered April 1, and definite possession was taken June 14 following. Garibaldi protested vehemently against this annexation. The town of Nice is remarkable as the birthplace of Masséna, one of the most famous of Napoleon’s generals.
=Nicomedia= (now ruins at _Izmid_, or _Iznikmid_). A celebrated city in Asia Minor, capital of Bithynia, built by King Nicomedes I., 264 B.C., at the northeast corner of the Sinus Astacenus (now _Gulf of Izmid_). Like its neighbor and rival Nicæa, it occupied an important place in the wars against the Turks; it is memorable in history as the scene of Hannibal’s death. It surrendered to the Seljukian Turks, 1078, and to Orchan and the Ottoman Turks in 1338.
=Nicopolis=, or =Nikopoli=. A town of Turkey in Europe, in Bulgaria, situated on the Danube. The Hungarians under Sigismund were defeated here in 1396 by the Turks.
=Nicosia=, or =Lefkosia=. The capital of Cyprus, stands near the centre of the island, on the right bank of the Pedia. In 1570 it was stormed by the Turks, who on that occasion put to the sword about 20,000 of the inhabitants.
=Niemen=, or =Memel=. A large river of Lithuania, which rises a few miles south of Minsk. Napoleon I. and Alexander of Russia held an interview on the waters of this river in 1807.
=Nieuport.= A fortified town of Belgium, in the province of West Flanders, 11 miles southwest from Ostend. This place has often been besieged and taken and retaken by the French and English.
=Nigher= (_Ind._). Any fortified city measuring at least 8 coss, or 8 English miles, in length and breadth.
=Night-firing.= When a fixed object is to be fired at by night, the piece should be directed during the day, and two narrow and well-dressed strips of wood (to prevent injury to the strips from the recoil, they should be nailed at such a distance from the carriage that the space can be filled up with a strip that can be removed before firing) laid on the inside of the wheels, and two others outside of the trail of a siege carriage, and nailed or screwed to the platform. In case of a barbette carriage, the traverse wheels should be chocked in the proper position. To preserve the elevation, measure the height of the elevating-screw above its box, or take the measure between a point on the gun and another on the stock; cut a stick to this length and adjust the gun on it at each fire. _Direction_ of fire may be secured at night with mortars by nailing or screwing two boards to the platform outside of the cheeks, and the _elevation_ by drawing a line across one of the trunnions, or by inserting a wedge-shaped block of the proper inclination below the mortar and the front transom or step. Night-firing with guns should be limited to a small number of rounds, as it consumes ammunition to little advantage.
=Night-signaling.= An important branch of signaling. It may be effected in various ways. In ordinary service two torches are used,--one on the ground and the other attached to a staff, which is used precisely as the flag for day signals. Lanterns held in the hands can also be used. For long distances and when stations cannot be seen on account of intervening obstacles, such as woods, signal-rockets, candle-bombs, and other pyrotechnic devices are used.
=Nihilists.= The name given to a political party in Russia. Beyond the extinction of imperialism it is difficult to give their creed.
=Nijni-Novgorod=, or =Nijnei-Novgorod= (Lower Novgorod). A fortified town and the capital of the government of the same name in Russia. It is an ancient town, and was founded in 1221 by Prince Yury Vsevolodovitch as a stronghold against the invasions of the Bulgarians and the Mordva. It was devastated on several occasions by the Tartars; and in 1612, during the civil dissensions in Russia, when it was on the point of falling a prey to Poland, Minin, the famous butcher of Nijni-Novgorod, collected an armed force here, which, under Prince Pojarsky, drove the invaders from the capital.
=Nikolsburg=, or =Mikulov=. A town of Austria, in the south of Moravia, 27 miles south of Brunn. Here were signed, July 26, 1866, the preliminaries of a peace between Austria and Prussia.
=Nile, The.= A river of Northeastern Africa, and one of the most powerful, most interesting, and most celebrated rivers on our globe. Near Rosetta, at the mouth of the Nile, a naval battle took place, August 1, 1798, between the Toulon and British fleets, the latter commanded by Lord (then Sir Horatio) Nelson. Nine of the French line-of-battle ships were taken, two were burnt, and two escaped. The French ship L’Orient with Admiral Brueys and 1000 men on board, blew up, and only 70 or 80 escaped. This engagement is also called the battle of Aboukir.
=Nimeguen=, or =Nymwegen=. The _Noviomagum_ of the Romans, called by Tacitus _Batavorum oppidum_, and in the Middle Ages _Numaga_, is the principal city of the district of the same name, or the Betuwe, in Holland, province of Guelderland. Nimeguen is celebrated for the great peace congress of the European powers which was held here, and, August 10, 1678, concluded a treaty between Spain and France on September 17, between France and the United Netherlands, and between the German empire and France, and the same empire and Sweden, February 5, 1679. The French were successful against the British under the Duke of York before Nimeguen, October 28, 1794; but were defeated by them November 8.
=Nimes=, or =Nismes= (anc. _Nemausus_). A city of France, and the chief town of the department of the Gard, 30 miles northeast from Montpellier. Previously to the Roman invasion, it (supposed to have been founded by a colony from Massilia) was the chief city of the Volcæ Arecomici. It surrendered to the rule of the Visigoths between 465 and 535, and afterwards to that of the Franks; subsequently, it became a possession of Aragon; but was finally restored to France in 1259 by the treaty of Corbeil. In 1791 and 1815, bloody religious and political reactions took place here. The treaty termed the Pacification of Nimes (July 14, 1629) gave religious toleration for a time to the Huguenots.
=Nimrûd=, or =Nimroud=. The Arab name of the great mound on the east bank of the Tigris, near Mosul, supposed to represent the Assyrian city of Calah, which was destroyed at the final conquest of Assyria by the Medes and Babylonians.
=Nineveh.= The greatest city in Assyria and for some time the capital of the country, was situated on the eastern bank of the Tigris at its junction with the stream of the Khosr. The walls of Nineveh are described as about 55 miles in circumference, 100 feet high, and thick enough to allow three chariots to pass each other on them; with 1500 towers, 200 feet in height. The city is said to have been entirely destroyed by fire, when it was taken by the Medes and Babylonians, about 606 B.C.
=Ninians, St.= A town and parish of Scotland, in Stirlingshire, about a mile south from Stirling. Several battles have been fought in this parish. The first was between the Scottish followers of Wallace and the English, who were defeated, the second was the famous battle of Bannockburn, and the third was that in which James III. of Scotland was defeated and slain by his rebellious nobles.
=Nipple.= Any small projection in which there is an orifice for discharging a fluid, or for other purposes, as the nipple of a percussion-lock, or that part on which the cap is put to be fired.
=Niquibs= (_Ind._). Men whose military functions among the Sepoys correspond with those of corporals in other services.
=Nisbet=, or =Nesbit= (Northumberland, Eng.). Here a battle was fought between the English and Scotch armies, the latter greatly disproportioned in strength to the former. Several thousands of the Scots were slain upon the field and in the pursuit, May 7, 1402.
=Nishapoor=, or =Nishapur=. A town of Persia, province of Khorassan. The town is said to be very ancient, and to have existed in the time of Alexander the Great, by whom it was destroyed. In 1269 it was sacked by the Tartars, again by Ihengiz-khan, and in 1749 by Nadir Shah, from which last calamity it has never recovered.
=Nisibis.= The capital of ancient Mygdonia, the northeastern part of Mesopotamia. It was a place of great importance as a military post, was twice taken by the Romans (under Lucullus and Trajan), and again given up by them to the Armenians; but being a third time taken by Lucius Verus in 165, it remained the chief bulwark of the Roman empire against the Persians, till it was surrendered to them by Jovian after the death of Julian in 363.
=Nissa=, or =Nish=. A well-fortified town of Turkey in Europe, in the province of Servia, about 120 miles southeast from Belgrade. It commands the communication between the provinces of Servia, Bulgaria, and Roumelia. It was taken by Amurath II. in 1389, and again by the Austrians in 1737.
=Nithing.= A coward or poltroon.
=Nitre.= Potassium nitrate or saltpetre, the most important ingredient of gunpowder. It is obtained principally from the East Indies. It has been the policy of the American government to keep large quantities in store. See SALTPETRE.
=Nitro-cellulose.= See GUN-COTTON.
=Nitro-glycerine.= Is a light, yellow, oily liquid, inodorous, with a sweet, pungent, aromatic taste. It received its name from Sobrero, a chemist, who in 1847 discovered that glycerine when treated with nitric acid was converted into a highly-explosive substance. This liquid appears to have been almost forgotten by chemists until in 1864 Nobel, a Swedish engineer, succeeded in applying it to a very important branch of his art, namely, blasting. It is now prepared by introducing glycerine into a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids, the whole being kept at a temperature below freezing-point. When uncongealed this preparation explodes by concussion, and is therefore unfit for transportation, and very dangerous to handle while in that state. The chief advantage for mining purposes which nitro-glycerine possesses is, that it requires a much smaller hole or chamber than gunpowder does, the strength of the latter being scarcely one-tenth of the former. Hence the miner’s work, which, according to the hardness of the rock, represents from five to twenty times the price of the gunpowder used, is so short that the cost of blasting is often reduced 50 per cent. The process is very easy: if the chamber of a mine presents fissures it must first be lined with clay, to make it water-tight; this done, the nitro-glycerine is poured in, and water after it, which, being the lighter liquid, remains at the top. A slow-match, with a well-charged percussion-cap at one end, is then introduced into the nitro-glycerine. The mine may then be sprung by lighting the match, there being no need of tamping. Submarine mines may be sprung by electricity. In this manner the obstructions of Hell Gate, N. Y., were removed by Gen. Newton, one of the greatest engineering feats of the time. On account of its liability to spontaneous explosion, the great danger in handling it, and its liability to decomposition, nitro-glycerine is now almost entirely superseded for ordinary mining purposes by dynamite.
=Nitroleum.= Nitro-glycerine; a name given it by Shaffner, an American patentee of high explosives.
=Nitro-mannite.= See MANNITE, NITRO-.