Part 8

=Austria, Empire of= (Ger. _Oesterreich_, “eastern kingdom”). One of the most extensive and most populous of European kingdoms, comprising the southeast part of Central Europe and more than half the territory of the Danube. It is composed of a union of different states, some of them at one time forming independent kingdoms, inhabited by races of people differing from each other in descent, language, customs, laws, and religion, held together as one empire by being united under one sovereign and one central government. This territory, which was comprised in Noricum and part of Pannonia, was annexed to the Roman empire in 33, was overrun by Huns, Avars, etc., in the 5th and 6th centuries, and taken from them by Charlemagne, who united it to Germany as the “eastern kingdom,” 791-96. In 1156 the country was made a hereditary duchy by the emperor Frederick I., and in 1453 was raised to an archduchy. Rodolph, count of Hapsburg, elected emperor of Germany in 1273, acquired Austria in 1278, and from 1493 to 1804 his descendants were emperors of Germany. On August 11, 1804, Francis II. became hereditary emperor of Austria. Vienna, the capital, was entered by a French army November 14, 1805, and evacuated January 12, 1806, Austria losing Venice and the Tyrol by the treaty of Presburg. Francis renounced the title of emperor of Germany August 6, 1806. Vienna was again taken by the French May 13, 1809, but was restored at the peace, October 14 following. In 1848 Lombardy revolted, and Milan and other disaffected towns formed an alliance with Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, who then invaded the Austrian territory at the head of a large army, victory seeming for a time to favor the Italians. In the following year, however, both the insurgents and their Sardinian ally were repeatedly defeated by the Austrian forces under Marshal Radetzky, and Lombardy was again brought under the Austrian sway, but was ceded to Sardinia in 1859. Prussia and Italy declared war against Austria in 1866; but, through the intervention of Napoleon, peace was concluded the same year, Austria losing Venice and the Quadrilateral.

=Authority.= In a general acceptation of the term, signifies a right to command and a consequent right to be obeyed. For the appointment of officers of the U. S. army, see APPOINTING POWER. It appears that the sovereigns of Great Britain and other nations have the power to appoint and dismiss officers at pleasure.

=Autocrat.= A person vested with an absolute independent power, by which he is rendered unaccountable to any other for his actions. The power of the Athenian generals or commanders was usually limited, so that, at the expiration of their office, they were liable to render an account of their administration. But, on some extraordinary occasions, they were exempted from this restraint, and sent with a full and uncontrollable authority; in which sense they were styled autocrats. Somewhat similar was the Roman _dictator_. This term is sometimes applied to the czar of Russia.

=Automatic Fire.= A mixture of combustibles used by the Greeks. It was exploded by the rays of the sun.

=Autonomy.= The power or right of self-government. This was a privilege jealously preserved in all the important cities of ancient Greece, nearly every one of which was an independent state. The right to make their own laws and elect their own magistrates was also granted by the Romans to some of their cities, and was regarded as a mark of honor.

=Autun= (anc. _Bibracte, Augustodunum_). A town in France, department of the Saöne-et-Loire. Here, in the year 21, two Roman legions under Silius gained a victory over Sacrovir, chief of the Ædui, who had assembled a considerable force to oppose Silius. The Germans besieged it in 355; captured by the Burgundians in 414; devastated by the Saracens in 731; burned by the Normans in 888 and 895. This city was besieged without success by Marshal d’Aumont in 1591. It was also the scene of hostile operations between Garibaldi and the Germans in the winter of 1870-71.

=Auxerre.= Chief town of the department of Yonne, France. It is supposed to be on the site of the ancient _Autissiodorum_, which was a flourishing town before the Roman invasion of Gaul. It successfully resisted the Huns under Attila, was taken from the Romans by Clovis, and after his death became a part of the kingdom of Burgundy. The English took it in 1359, but it was retaken by Du Guesclin. It was finally united to the kingdom of France by Louis XI. John, “Sans Peur,” duke of Burgundy (reigned from 1404-19), caused the assassination of Louis, duke of Orleans, in 1407, which gave rise to a civil war between the Burgundians and the dukes of Orleans and their allies, which was ended by the treaty of Auxerre, August 10, 1412.

=Auxiliary.= Foreign or subsidiary troops which are furnished to a belligerent power in consequence of a treaty of alliance, or for pecuniary considerations. Of the latter description may be considered the Hessians that were employed by Great Britain to enslave America.

=Auxiliary War.= See WAR, AUXILIARY.

=Auximum= (now _Osimo_). A town in Italy, 9 miles from Ancona, which Belisarius (a great general of the Byzantine empire) captured from the Goths in 539.

=Avallon= (anc. _Aballo_). A town in the department of Yonne, France, which sustained a long siege and was dismantled during the reign of King Robert in the 10th century. It was sacked by the Saracens in 731, and by the Normans in 843; taken by Charles VII. in 1433, retaken by Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, in 1455, and pillaged by the troops of the League in 1593.

=Avant= (_Fr._). Foremost, most advanced towards the enemy; as, _Avant-chemin couvert_, the advanced covered way which is made at the foot of the glacis to oppose the approaches of an enemy. _Avant-duc_, the pile-work which is formed by a number of young trees on the edge or entrance of a river. They are driven into the ground with battering-rams or strong pieces of iron, to form a level floor by means of strong planks being nailed upon it, which serve for the foundation of a bridge. Boats are placed wherever the _avant-duc_ terminates. The _avant-duc_ is had recourse to when the river is so broad that there are not boats sufficient to make a bridge across. _Avant-ducs_ are made on each side of the river. _Avant-fosse_, the ditch of the counterscarp next to the country. It is dug at the foot of the glacis. _Avant-garde_, advance-guard. _Avant-trains_, the limbers of field-pieces on which are placed boxes containing ammunition enough for immediate service.

=Avars.= Barbarians who ravaged Pannonia and annoyed the Eastern empire in the 6th and 7th centuries; subdued by Charlemagne about 799, after an eight years’ war.

=Avein=, or =Avaine=. A village in Luxembourg, where, on May 20, 1635, the French and Dutch, under Marshals de Chatillon and de Brere, defeated the Spaniards under Prince Thomas of Savoy. The prince lost 4000 men killed and wounded, 900 prisoners, and 14 pieces of cannon.

=Aventaile.= The movable part of a helmet.

=Averysborough.= A village of North Carolina, on Cape Fear River, about 40 miles south of Raleigh. During Gen. Sherman’s South Carolina campaign, in 1865, this place was the scene of an engagement between his forces and about 20,000 Confederates under Gen. Hardee, who were intrenched in a swampy neck between Cape Fear and South Rivers in order to check Sherman’s progress, and gain time for the concentration of Gen. Johnston’s forces in the rear at Raleigh, Smithfleld, or Goldsboro’. The position of the Confederates was a strong one to carry by reason of the nature of the ground, which was very soft; but after four hours’ fighting they were driven back to a second line better and more strongly held, losing 3 guns and 217 prisoners. Here the fighting was continued until late in the afternoon, when the entire Federal line advanced and drove the Confederates within their intrenchments, pressing them so hard that during the night of March 16, which was stormy, they retreated towards Smithfield. The Union loss was 12 officers and 65 men killed and 477 wounded.

=Avesnes.= A city in the department of the North, France; ruptured by Louis XI.; recaptured by the Spaniards in 1559; returned to France in 1659; occupied by the Russians in 1814, and by the Prussians in 1815.

=Avesnes le Sec, Battle of.= The French were defeated by the Austrians in this battle, September, 1793.

=Avigliana.= A city in Italy where the French defeated the Piedmontese in 1630.

=Avignon.= A city in Southeastern France; besieged and captured by Louis VIII. of France in 1226; ceded by Philip III. to the pope in 1273. The papal seat was removed by Clement V. to Avignon in 1309. In 1348, Clement VI. purchased the sovereignty from Jane, countess of Provence and queen of Naples. In 1408 the French, wearied of the schism, expelled Benedict XIII., and Avignon ceased to be the seat of papacy. Here were held nine councils (1080-1457). This city was seized and restored several times by the French kings; the last time in 1773. It was claimed by the National Assembly, 1791, and was confirmed to France by the congress of sovereigns in 1815. In October, 1791, horrible massacres took place here.

=Avis=, or =Aviz=. An order of knighthood in Portugal, instituted by Sancho, the first king of Portugal, in imitation of the order of Calatrava, and having, like it, for its object the subjugation of the Moors. The king of Portugal is grand-master of the order.

=Avranches= (anc. _Abrancæ_). A city in the department of La Manche, France. It was a place of importance during the Roman period. Charlemagne fortified it, but it was taken by the Normans in 865. It was captured by Geoffrey Plantagenet in 1141; by Guy de Thouars in 1203; by the English in 1418; by the Calvinists in 1562; besieged by the royal troops in 1591.

=Award.= A judgment, the result of arbitration. In a military sense, the decision or sentence of a court-martial. To award medals of honor.

=Awkward Squad.= See SQUAD.

=Axel.= A town in the province of Zealand, Holland; captured by escalade from the Spaniards August 20, 1586, by Prince Maurice of Saxony, who was then but twenty years of age; captured by assault on May 16, 1747, by Marshal Maurice de Saxe.

=Axis.= A straight line, real or imaginary, about which a body revolves is called the axis of rotation. In gunnery, the axis of the piece is the central line of the bore of the gun.

=Axum=, or =Axoum=. A town in Abyssinia, said to have been the capital of a kingdom whose people were converted to Christianity by Frumentius, in the 4th century, and to have been the allies of Justinian, 533; captured and burned by the Arabs in 1532.

=Aya-Bassi=, or =Bachi=. A non-commissioned grade in the corps of janissaries, corresponding to that of corporal in modern armies.

=Ayacucho.= A city in Peru; here the Peruvians finally gained their independence by defeating the Spaniards, December 9, 1824. The Spaniards lost 6 generals killed, and General Lascerna wounded and taken prisoner; 700 men under Canterac and Valdez, who tried to escape, were forced to surrender.

=Aylesbury.= A town in Buckinghamshire, England; was reduced by the West Saxons in 571. St. O’Syth, beheaded by the pagans in Essex, was buried there, 600. William the Conqueror invested his favorites with some of its lands, under the tenure of providing straw for his bed-chambers, three eels for his use in winter, and in summer, straw, rushes, and two green geese, thrice every year.

=Aylesford.= A town in Kent, England; here, it is said, the Britons were victorious over the Saxon invaders, 455, and Horsa was killed.

=Azaine= (_Fr._). A name formerly applied to a trumpet in the French army.

=Azapes.= Auxiliary troops which were levied by the Turks among the Christians (under their dominion), whom they exposed to the first attack of the enemy.

=Azay-le-Rideau.= A small town in the department of Indre-et-Loire, France, formerly fortified; it sustained several sieges during the reign of Charles VI.

=Azaz.= A fortress which was situated between Aleppo and Antioch; captured by the Saracens in 688 B.C.

=Azmooz.= A village in Switzerland, where the French under Massena defeated the Austrians and took 3000 prisoners.

=Azoe=, or =Azov=. A town in Russia in Europe, captured by Tamerlane in 1392, by the Turks in 1471, by the Russians in 1696; returned to the Turks in 1711; ceded to Russia in 1774. It was bombarded and destroyed by an allied English and French squadron in 1855.

=Azof, Sea of.= The _Palus Mæotis_ of the ancients, communicates by the Strait of Yenikale, or Kertch (the Bosphorus Cimmerius), with the Black Sea, and is entirely surrounded by Russian territory. An expedition composed of British, French, and Turkish troops, commanded by Sir G. Brown, arrived at Kertch, May 24, 1855, when the Russians retired, after blowing up the fortifications. On the 27th the allies marched upon Yenikale, which also offered no resistance. On the same evening the allied fleet entered the sea of Azof, and in a few days completed their occupation of it, after capturing a large number of merchant vessels, etc. Immense quantities of stores were destroyed by the Russians to prevent them falling into the hands of the allies.

=Azotus.= See ASHDOD.

=Aztecs.= The ruling tribe in Mexico at the time of the Spanish invasion, 1519.

=Azure.= A French word used in heraldry to signify blue. In engraving arms it is always represented by horizontal lines.

B.

=Baalbec.= An ancient city of Syria. From the accounts of Oriental writers, it was a place of importance down to the time of the Moslem invasion of Syria. After the capture of Damascus, it was regularly invested by the Moslems, and after a courageous defense at length capitulated; sacked and dismantled by the caliph of Damascus, and the principal inhabitants put to the sword, 748; pillaged by Timour Bey, 1400; afterwards subjected to Turkish supremacy; pillaged August 8, 1860, and the Christian inhabitants massacred by the Mohammedans.

=Bab-el-Thaza.= A place in Algeria where the French fought the Arabs, April 22, 1842.

=Babylon.= One of the oldest and most celebrated cities in the world, the ancient capital of the Babylonio-Chaldean empire, was situated in an extensive plain on the Euphrates, about 60 miles south of Bagdad. The modern town of Hillah is supposed to occupy a portion of its site. About 588 B.C., Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, captured Jerusalem, burned the great temple of Solomon, and carried away the Jews as captives to Babylon. Cyrus besieged Babylon, took it by stratagem in 538, and put to death the king Belshazzar, after which the kingdom of Babylon ceased to exist. The city was occupied by Darius in 518, and taken by Alexander the Great in 331. Alexander having selected it as the capital of his empire, died there in 323 B.C.

=Bacchi.= Two ancient warlike machines; the one resembled a battering-ram, the other cast out fire.

=Bachelier= (_Fr._). A young squire, or knight, who has passed through his first campaign, and received the belt of the order.

=Bachevaleureux.= A term which, in the old French language, signified warrior, brave, valiant, etc.

=Backing.= The heavy plating of wood, or of wood and iron, used to support and strengthen iron plates.

=Back-plate.= A piece of armor for covering the back.

=Back-sight.= See SIGHT, REAR.

=Back-step.= The retrograde movement of a man, or a body of men, without changing front.

=Backsword.= A sword with one sharp edge. In England, a stick with a basket handle, used in rustic amusements; the game in which it is used; called also “single stick.”

=Backwards.= A technical word made use of in the British service to express the retrograde movement of troops from line into column, and _vice versa_. Also a word of command in the U. S. service, to cause a man, or body of men, to march to the rear without changing front.

=Bactria= (now _Bokhara_). A province of the Persian empire; it was inhabited by a rude and warlike people, who were subdued by Cyrus or his next successors. It was included in the conquests of Alexander, and formed a part of the kingdom of the Selucidæ until 255 B.C., when Theodotus, its governor, revolted from Antiochus II., and founded the Greek kingdom of Bactria; overthrown by the Parthians 134 or 125 B.C.

=Bacule.= A kind of portcullis or gate, made like a pitfall, with a counterpoise. See BASCULE BRIDGE.

=Badajos= (Southwest Spain). An important barrier fortress, surrendered to the French, under Soult, March 11, 1811; was invested by the British, under Lord Wellington, on March 16, 1812, and stormed and taken on April 6, 1812. The French retreated in haste.

=Badaleers.= Musket-charges of powder in tin or copper tubes, worn dangling from a shoulder-belt, before the introduction of cartridges.

=Baddesdown Hill=, or =Mount Badon=. Near Bath, England, where Bede says the Britons defeated the Saxons, 493; others say in 511 or 520.

=Badelaire=, or =Bandelaire= (_Fr._). A short, broad, curved, and double-edged pointed sword.

=Baden= (Southwest Germany). A grand duchy; broke out in insurrection and joined by the free city of Rastadt, May, 1849; the Prussians entered it, and defeated the insurgents commanded by Mierolawski, June 15, 1849. Noted as the place where the Emperor Napoleon III., the prince regent of Prussia, and the German kings and princes held an interview, June 16, 1860.

=Badge.= A distinctive mark, token, or sign, worn on the person. _Corps_ badges were worn to distinguish the army corps during the civil war, 1861-65. _Marksmen’s badges_ are given to good shots in most armies.

=Badon, Mount.= The scene of a battle said to have been fought by King Arthur against the Saxons who invaded his kingdom, and in which the latter were signally defeated. By some writers Badon has been identified with Bath, by others in Berkshire.

=Bæcula.= An ancient town in Hispania Tarraconensis, west of Castulo, where the Romans under Scipio defeated the Carthaginians under Hasdrubal, 209 B.C.

=Bagaudes.= A name given to the peasants of Gaul, who revolted against the Romans in 270; they pillaged cities and villages and massacred the Roman officers; two of the insurgent chiefs, Aliandus and Amandus, were elected emperors; their reign was of short duration; besieged in their camp near the confluence of the Seine and Marne, where Saint-Maur is now situated, they died in arms. This place was named for a long time “Camp des Bagaudes.”

=Bagdad.= In Asiatic Turkey, built by Al Mansour, and made the seat of the Saracen empire about 762; taken by the Tartars, and a period put to the Saracen rule, 1258; often taken by the Persians, and retaken by the Turks, with great slaughter; the latter took it in 1638, and have held it since.

=Baggage.= The clothes, tents, utensils of divers sorts, and provisions, etc., belonging to an army, or part of an army.

=Baggonet.= The old term for bayonet.

=Bagpipe.= The name of a musical warlike instrument, of the wind kind, used by the Scotch regiments, and sometimes by the Irish. Bagpipes were used by the Danes, by the Romans, and by the Asiatics. The Greeks also had an instrument composed of a pipe and blown-up skin. The bagpipe has been a favorite instrument among the Scots. There are two varieties, the one with long pipes, sounded with the mouth; the other, with short pipes, filled with air by a bellows, and played on with the fingers. The first, the loudest and most ear-piercing of all music, is the genuine Highland pipe, and was suited to the warlike genius of that people. It formerly roused their courage to battle, alarmed them when secure, and collected them when scattered, solaced them in their long and painful marches, and in time of peace kept up the memory of the gallantry of their ancestors by the tunes composed after signal victories. The other is the Irish bagpipe.

=Bags.= Articles used in field fortifications, and in works to cover a besieging army. _Sand-bags_, which are generally 16 inches in diameter, and 30 high, are filled with earth or sand, to repair breaches and embrasures of batteries, when damaged by the enemy’s fire or by the blast of the guns. They are also placed on parapets, so arranged as to form a covering for men to fire through. _Earth-bags_ contain about a cubical foot of earth, and are used to raise a parapet in haste, or to repair one that is beaten down. They are only employed where the ground is rocky, or too hard for the pickaxe and spade, and does not afford ready material for a temporary parapet.

=Bags, Cartridge-.= See CARTRIDGE.

=Bags of Powder.= Are used to blow down gates, stockades, and slight obstructions. In future wars the higher explosives will probably be used for such purposes.

=Bahama Isles= (North America). Were the first points of discovery by Columbus. New Providence was settled by the English in 1629. They were expelled by the Spaniards in 1641; returned in 1666; again expelled in 1703. These isles were formally ceded to the English in 1783. The Bahamas profited by blockade-running during the American civil war, 1861-65.

=Bahar.= A province in Northern India; conquered by Baber in 1530. Bahar, Bengal, and Orissa, a princely dominion, became subject to the English East India Company in 1765, by the treaty of Allahabad.

=Baiclaklar.= A color-bearer in the Turkish army.

=Baiky.= The ballium, or inclosed plat of ground in an ancient fort.

=Bail.= A stout iron yoke placed over heavy guns and fitting closely over the ends of the trunnions, to which it is attached by pins in the axis of the trunnions; used to raise or lower the gun by means of the gin.

=Baille= (_Fr._). A term formerly used to designate a work or fortification which served as an outpost or exterior defense.

=Baionnier= (_Fr._). A name formerly given to soldiers who were armed with a bayonet.

=Baker, Post.= The person who bakes bread for a garrison. In the U. S. service an enlisted man, who receives additional pay for his labor.

=Bakery=, or =Bakehouse=. See OVENS.

=Balaklava.= A small town in the Crimea, with a fine harbor, about 10 miles from Sebastopol. Near here about 12,000 Russians, commanded by Gen. Liprandi, were repulsed by a furious charge of heavy English cavalry, led by Brig.-Gen. Scarlett, under the orders of Lord Lucan, October 25, 1854. After this, from an unfortunate misconception of Lord Raglan’s order, Lord Lucan ordered Lord Cardigan, with the light cavalry, to charge the Russian army, which had reformed on its own ground, with its artillery in front. This order was most gallantly obeyed, and great havoc was made on the Russians; but of 670 British horsemen only 198 returned (termed by Tennyson “The Charge of the Six Hundred”). On March 22, 1855, a sortie from the garrison of Sebastopol led to a desperate engagement here, in which the Russians were vigorously repulsed, with the loss of 2000 men killed and wounded; the allies lost about 600.

=Balance-step.= An exercise in squad drill, a preliminary to marching.

=Balbec.= See BAALBEC.

=Baldrick=, or =Baudrick=. A girdle, or richly ornamented belt, worn pendent from one shoulder across the breast, and under the opposite arm.

=Bale=, or =Basel=. One of the largest towns in Switzerland; captured and burned by the Hungarians in 917. In 1444 there was a bloody battle fought about a quarter of a mile beyond its gates, called the battle of St. Jacob, between the Swiss, 1600 strong, and a French army that was twenty times their number, commanded by the dauphin, afterwards Louis XII. For ten hours the brave Swiss band kept this large army in check; but nearly all the Swiss fell, not more than 10, according to some accounts, escaping alive. This exploit first spread the fame of Swiss valor, and led to the enrollment of the Swiss body-guard of France. The treaties of peace between France and Spain, and France and Prussia, were signed here, July 22, 1795.