Part 68

=Malvern Hill.= Near the James River, in Virginia. Here, on the night of June 30, 1862, all the divisions of the Army of the Potomac, under Gen. McClellan, were united in a strong position, after five days of incessant marching and fighting. About 4 A.M. on July 1 the Confederate forces advanced to storm this position, but were mowed down by a destructive fire of grape from the land batteries, and were obliged to seek shelter in the woods. The gunboats, also, which were within range, opened a destructive fire of shells on the enemy. The attack was a complete failure, the loss of the Confederates being considerable, while that of the Federals was insignificant. After this repulse, the Confederates retired to Richmond, and McClellan pursued his way to the James, arriving at Harrison’s Landing on July 3.

=Mameliere= (_Fr._). Armor for the breast, from which depended two chains, one attached to the pommel, and the other to the scabbard of the sword.

=Mamelukes= (Arabic, _mamluk_, a “slave”). The name given to the slaves of the beys, brought from the Caucasus, and who formed their armed forces. When Genghis Khan desolated a great part of Asia in the 13th century, and carried away a multitude of the inhabitants for slaves, the sultan of Egypt bought 12,000 of them, partly Mingrelians and Tartars, but mostly Turks, and formed them into a body of troops. But they soon found their own power so great that, in 1254, they made one of their own number sultan of Egypt, founding the dynasty of the Baharites, which gave place to another Mameluke dynasty in 1382. The Caucasian element predominated in the first dynasty, the Tartar element in the second. Selim I., who overthrew the Mameluke kingdom in 1517, was compelled to permit the continuance of the 24 Mameluke beys as governors of the provinces; but in the middle of the 18th century they regained such a preponderance of power in Egypt that the pasha named by the Porte was reduced to a nominal ruler. The number of them scattered throughout all Egypt was between 10,000 and 12,000 men. Their number was kept up chiefly by slaves brought from the Caucasus, from among whom the beys and other officers of state were exclusively chosen. Their last brilliant achievements were on the occasion of the French invasion of Egypt, and during the time immediately following the retirement of the French. At this time Murad Bey stood at their head. But in 1811 they were foully massacred by Mehemet Ali.

=Mamertini.= Sons of Mamers, or Mars, were Campanian soldiers of Agathocles. They seized Messina, in Sicily, in 281 B.C., and when closely besieged by the Carthaginians and Hiero of Syracuse in 264, they implored the help of the Romans, which led to the first Punic war.

=Mammoth Powder.= See GUNPOWDER.

=Man.= To supply with men; to furnish with a sufficient force or complement of men, as for management, service, defense, or the like. Also, to supply with strength for action; to prepare for efficiency; to fortify.

=Man, Isle of.= An island of Great Britain, in the Irish Sea, nearly equidistant from the coasts of England, Scotland, and Ireland. It was subdued by the king of Northumberland, 621; by Magnus of Norway, 1092; ceded to the Scots, 1266, and taken from them in 1314 by Montacute, afterwards earl of Salisbury; it subsequently fell to the Earl of Derby. The brave Countess of Derby held this island against the troops of the Parliament in 1651, after her husband had been beheaded at Bolton, England, in the same year for his devotion to the royal cause.

=Manassas.= A town in Prince William Co., Va., which was an important military position during the civil war, and where the Alexandria and Manassas Gap Railways meet, near a creek called Bull Run; it was held by the Confederates in 1861, when they were attacked by the Federal general Irvin McDowell. He began his march from Washington on July 16, and gained some advantage on the 18th at Centreville. On the 21st was fought the _first_ battle of Bull Run. The Federals, who began the fight, had the advantage till about 3 o’clock P.M., when the Confederate general Johnston brought up reinforcements, which at first the Federals took for their own troops. After a brief resistance, the latter were seized with sudden panic, and in spite of the utmost efforts of their officers, fled in disgraceful rout, abandoning a large quantity of arms, ammunition, and baggage. The Confederate generals, Johnston and Beauregard, did not think it prudent to pursue the fugitives, who did not halt till they reached Washington. The Federal army is said to have had 481 killed, 1011 wounded, and 1216 missing. The loss of the Confederates was stated to be about 1500. In March, 1862, when the Army of the Potomac under Gen. McClellan marched into Virginia, they found that the Confederates had quietly retreated from the camp at Manassas. On August 30, 1862, this place was the site of another great battle between the Northern and Southern armies. In August, Gen. “Stonewall” Jackson, after compelling the Federal general Pope to retreat, defeated him at Cedar Mountain on the 9th, turned his flank on the 22d, and arriving at Manassas repulsed his attacks on the 29th. On the 30th, Gen. R. E. Lee (who had defeated Gen. McClellan and the invading Northern army before Richmond, June 26 to July 1) joined Jackson with his army, and Pope received reinforcements from Washington. A desperate conflict ensued, which ended in the Confederates gaining a decisive victory, compelling the Federals to a hasty retreat to Centreville, where they were once more routed, September 1. The remains of their army took refuge behind the lines of Washington on September 2. Pope was at once superseded, and McClellan resumed the command to march against the Confederates, who had crossed the Potomac and entered Maryland.

=Manch=, or =Maunch=. A charge frequently used in heraldry to represent a sleeve with long pendent ends, of the form worn by ladies in the reign of Henry I.

=Manchester.= A city of England, in Lancashire, on the Irwell. In the time of the Druids, it was one of their principal stations. It was one of the seats of the Brigantes, who had a castle or stronghold called _Mancenion_; and was, about 79, selected by the Romans as a station, and called _Mancunium_. Called by the Saxons _Manceastre_. Taken from the Britons, 488; captured by Edwin of Northumbria, 620; taken by the Danes, 877; retaken, 923.

=Mandans.= A tribe of Indians of the Dakota family, who are located with the Arickarees and Gros Ventres on a reservation near Fort Berthold, Dakota. They were hostile to the Sioux, and more friendly to the whites than the neighboring tribes. They number about 250.

=Mandarin.= A general term applied to Chinese officers of every grade by foreigners. It is derived from the Portuguese _mandar_, “to command”; the Chinese equivalent is _kwan_. There are nine ranks, each distinguished by a different-colored ball or button placed on the apex of the cap, by a peculiar emblazonry on the breast, and a different clasp of the girdle. The military mandarins are selected by the emperor of China to superintend and command the militia of the country.

=Mandilion.= A soldier’s loose coat; an outer garment without sleeves.

=Mandrel.= In forging, is a rod used to preserve the interior form of hollow-work. Also, the spindle upon which an article is placed in shaping it in a lathe.

=Manduria= (now _Casal Nova_). A town in Calabria, on the road from Tarentum to Hydruntum, and near a small lake. Here Archidamus III., king of Sparta, was defeated and slain in battle by the Messapians and Lucanians, 338 B.C.

=Manège.= The art of horsemanship or of training horses. Also, a school for teaching horsemanship, and for training horses; a riding-school.

=Mangalore.= A seaport town and fortress of Hindostan, on the eastern shore of the Indian Ocean, in the province of Canara. The Portuguese had a factory here, which was destroyed by the Arabians. In 1793 the town was taken by Hyder Ali, then the Mysore general; in 1768 it was captured by a detachment from Bombay; but was shortly afterwards retaken by Hyder. In 1783 Mangalore again surrendered to a force from Bombay; and after the destruction of Gen. Matthews’s army, sustained a long siege from Tippoo Sahib, and was gallantly defended by Col. Campbell. Upon the conclusion of peace in 1784, it was restored, and the fortifications were dismantled. In 1799, on the overthrow of Tippoo, it was finally taken possession of by the British.

=Mangan= (_Fr._). This word is sometimes written _mangon_, a warlike machine formerly used. The term itself was generally adopted to signify any species of warlike machine. But it more particularly meant the largest and most powerful machine that could be used for warlike purposes; whether it was practiced to throw enormous stones against besieged places, or to cast javelins, etc. It was likewise called _ballista_, from the Greek, _tormentum_, from the Latin, _torquendo_, and sometimes _petraria_, because stones weighing upwards of 360 pounds were thrown from it. This machine answered the double purpose of defending or attacking fortified places, and it was sometimes used at sea.

=Mangonel= (Fr. _mangonel_, _mangoneau_). A very strong and powerful cross-bow, from 15 to 20 feet long, for throwing arrows, darts, or stones. The _trebuchet_, _ribaudequin_, etc., were only a variety of the above.

=Manheim=, or =Mannheim=. A town of Germany, in the grand duchy of Baden, at the confluence of the Neckar and the Rhine. It surrendered to the French, under command of Pichegru, September 20, 1795. On October 31, the Austrians under Wurmser defeated the French near the city. Several battles were fought with various success in the neighborhood during the late wars.

=Manifesto=, or =Manifest=. A public declaration, usually of a prince or sovereign, showing his intentions, or proclaiming his opinions and motives in reference to some act done or contemplated by him; as, a manifesto declaring the purpose of a prince to begin war, and explaining his motives.

=Maniglions.= The two handles on the back of a piece of ordnance.

=Manilla=, or =Manila=. A town of the island of Luzon, and the capital of the Spanish settlements in the Philippine Islands. It was taken by the English in 1757; and again in October, 1762, by storm.

=Manipularis= (Fr. _manipulaire_). The chief officer in a part of the Roman infantry called _manipulus_, was so called. This officer was likewise ordinary (Fr. _ordinaire_).

=Manipulus.= So called from its standard or flag, which was made of cloth, and hung suspended on a staff with a hand. The manipulus was distinguished in this manner from the chief standard of each legion, which was an eagle of massive metal.

=Manipulus= (Fr. _manipule_). A small body of infantry originally, so called among the Romans during the reign of Romulus. Their ensign was a hand on the end of a staff. The manipulus consisted of 100 men, and in the days of the consuls and first Cæsars, of 200. Three manipuli constituted a Roman cohort. Each manipulus was commanded by two officers called _centurions_, one of whom acted as lieutenant to the other. Every manipulus made two centuries, or _ordines_. This, however, cannot be said to have been the uniform establishment or formation of the manipulus; for according to Varro and Vegetius, it was the smallest body of men employed in the Roman armies, and composed the tenth part of a century. Spartian says, “it consisted of only ten soldiers.” Some authorities assert that it takes its name from _manipulus_, “a handful of straw,” the latter having been fixed to a long pole to serve as a rallying signal, before the eagles were adopted. This circumstance has given rise to the modern expression, a handful of men, _une poignée de gens_. Vegetius, on the other hand, says it comes from _manus_, which signified a small body or handful of men collected together, and following the same standard; and Modestus as well as Varro state it to have been so called because, when they went into action, they took each other by the hand, or fought all together. A French writer conceives that the manipulus may be considered as one of those parts of a modern battalion which are distributed in different rooms, etc., and which is called _une chambree_, or a company that messes together.

=Manly.= Having qualities becoming a man; firm; brave; undaunted; noble, etc.

=Mannite, Nitro-.= A high explosive resembling nitro-glycerine in its properties, and made in an analogous manner by the action of nitric and sulphuric acids upon mannite, a form of sugar.

=Manœuvre=, or =Maneuver=. Management; dexterous movement; specifically, an evolution, movement, or change of position among military or naval bodies. To perform a movement in military or naval tactics; to make an evolution. Also, to change the positions of, as troops or ships.

=Manœuvring-wheels.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, SEA-COAST CARRIAGES.

=Manresa.= A town of Spain, in Catalonia, 30 miles northwest from Barcelona. It suffered much in the war of independence; and in March, 1811, it was almost completely burnt to the ground by Marshal Macdonald.

=Mans, Le.= A city of France, formerly capital of the province of Maine, now of the department of Sarthe. The final struggle between the Vendean troops and the French republicans took place here in 1793, in which the latter were victorious; and in 1871, another battle took place between the Germans and French, in which the former were victorious.

=Mansoura=, or =Mansourah=. A town of Lower Egypt, 34 miles southwest from Dalmietta. Here Louis IX. was defeated by the Saracens and taken prisoner, April 5, 1250. Some French troops which occupied the garrison were massacred here in 1798.

=Manteau= (_Fr._). This word, which literally signifies a cloak, is frequently used among the French to express the covering that hussars or light infantry troops carry for the double purpose of shielding their bodies from the inclemencies of the weather in outposts, etc., and for spreading over their heads, by means of poles, when they occasionally halt, and take a position.

=Mantelet= (_Fr._). A large osier buckler which was used in ancient times; it was held upright, under cover of which archers shot their arrows. Also a circular frame upon wheels covered with osier or horse-hair, used for the same purpose.

=Mantes.= A town of France, in the department of Seine-et-Oise, 30 miles west-northwest of Paris. It was taken and reduced to ashes by William the Conqueror in 1087.

=Mantillis.= A kind of shield, anciently fixed upon the tops of ships as a cover for archers.

=Mantinea=, or =Mantinœa=. Anciently a city of the Morea, 9 miles north from Tripolitza. It is now the modern Greek village of Palespoli. It was famous as being the scene of several battles, of which the most important was that fought between the Spartans and the Thebans under Epaminondas (362 B.C.), in which the former were defeated.

=Mantle.= A long flowing robe, worn in the Middle Ages over the armor, and fastened by a fibula in front, or at the right shoulder. The mantle is an important part of the official insignia of the various orders of knighthood.

=Mantlet.= A sort of temporary fortification intended to protect the men working guns in embrasures, casemates, or port-holes from the bullets of sharpshooters. The mantlet is usually made to be hoisted up while the gunner takes aim, and then lowered to cover the whole opening except a circular aperture for the muzzle of the cannon. With every increase in the range and precision of small-arms, mantlets become more essential for the safety of gunners. Mantlets are made of thick fir, of solid oak planks, or of iron plates, the last being preferable, as the lightest. At Sebastopol, the Russians effectively blocked their embrasures by thick mantlets of plaited rope suspended freely. A mantlet of planks or iron plates, about 5 feet high, and occasionally mounted on small wheels, is also used to protect sappers working at the end of a sap, although a rolling gabion is preferred for this purpose by many engineers.

=Mantling=, or =Lambrequin=. A heraldic ornament depicted as hanging down from the helmet, and behind the escutcheon. It is considered to represent either the cointise (an ornamental scarf which passed round the body and over the shoulder) or the military mantle or robe of estate. When intended for the cointise, it is cut into irregular strips and curls of the most capricious forms, whose contortions are supposed to indicate that it has been torn into that ragged condition in the field of battle. When the mantling is treated as a robe of estate, the bearings of the shield are sometimes embroidered on it. A mantling adjusted so as to form a background for the shield and its accessories constitutes an _Achievement of Arms_. In British heraldry, the mantling of the sovereign is of gold lined with ermine; that of peers, of crimson velvet lined with ermine. Knights and gentlemen have generally crimson velvet lined with white satin; but sometimes the livery colors are adopted instead, as is generally the practice in continental heraldry.

=Mantonet= (_Fr._). A small piece of wood or iron, which is notched, for the purpose of hanging anything upon it. The pegs in soldiers’ rooms are sometimes so called.

=Mantua.= A fortified city of Northern Italy, 22 miles southwest from Verona. Mantua is both by nature and art one of the strongest places in Europe. It can boast of an antiquity almost equal to that of Rome, and experienced all the vicissitudes of the Middle Ages, and, like other Italian cities, emerged from them into liberty and independence. It surrendered to the French, February 2, 1797, after a siege of eight months; was retaken by the Austrian and Russian army, July 30, 1799, after a short siege. In 1800, after the battle of Marengo, the French again obtained possession of it. It was included in the kingdom of Italy till 1814, when it was restored to the Austrians, who surrendered it to the Italians, October 11, 1866, after the peace.

=Manual.= Book of reference; as, ordnance manual, etc.

=Manual.= A prescribed exercise by means of which soldiers are taught to handle and use their weapons. The _manual of arms_ is the exercise with the musket; the _manual of the piece_, the exercise with the field-gun. There are also _manuals for the sabre, pistol_, etc.

=Manuballiste= (_Fr._). A cross-bow. There were two kinds in the reign of Henry VII., viz., the _latch_ which was used for quarrels, and the _prodd_ for bullets.

=Manufacture of Ordnance.= See ORDNANCE, MANUFACTURE OF.

=Manufacture of Powder.= See GUNPOWDER.

=Manx.= Pertaining to the Isle of Man.

=Maoris.= A New Zealand word signifying _native_, is the name given to themselves by the inhabitants of New Zealand, and that by which they are now usually designated. In 1861 war broke out between them and the British, terminating in favor of the latter in 1862; but in 1863 the Maoris recommenced hostilities, and a formidable conspiracy was formed to expel the British troops. In 1868 they massacred many settlers and offered a desperate resistance, and were not subdued until the following year. They numbered at that time about 40,000. They are now comparatively peaceable.

=Map.= In a military and geographical sense, is a plane figure, representing the surface of the earth, or a part thereof, according to the law of the particular kind of projection used; distinguishing the situation of cities, mountains, rivers, roads, etc.

=Marathon.= A village on the east shore of Attica, 20 miles northeast from Athens. Here on September 28 and 29, 490 B.C., the Greeks, only 10,000 strong, defeated the Persian army amounting to 200,000, who had 6400 killed. The Greek loss was 192 Athenians killed, besides some Platæans and slaves. The Greeks were commanded by Miltiades, Aristides, and Themistocles. Among the slain was Hippias, the instigator of the war. The Persian army was forced to retreat to Asia.

=Marathus.= An important city on the coast of Phœnicia, opposite to Aradus. It was destroyed by the people of Aradus in the time of the Syrian king, Alexander Balas, a little before 150 B.C.

=Maraud.= To rove in quest of plunder; to make an excursion for booty; to plunder.

=Marauder.= A rover in quest of booty or plunder; a plunderer.

=Marauding.= Is irregular plunder or violence offered to the inhabitants of a country by the individuals of an army. In all armies where discipline is maintained, marauding is, at least professedly, punished by death; the provost-marshal having power to inflict that penalty summarily on all offenders taken in the act. Marauding is also applied to plundering at sea; as, the Barbary corsairs are systematic marauders.

=Marburg.= A town of Germany, in Hesse-Cassel, situated on the Lahn. It suffered much during the Seven Years’ War, 1753-60.

=March.= The movement of a body of men from one place to another. In marching it cannot be too strongly inculcated that every just movement and manœuvre depends upon the correct equality of march established and practiced by all the troops of the same army, and that when this is not attended to confusion must follow on the junction of several battalions. Also, the distance marched over; as, a march of 20 miles.

=March.= To cause to move in military array; to push forward, as troops; to cause to advance in a steady, regular, or stately manner.

=March.= The military signal for soldiers to move; a piece of music, designed or fitted to accompany and guide the movement of troops; or a piece of music composed after the measure of a march. Also, the command for soldiers to move.

=March.= The length of a day’s march for troops of any arm depends, to a great extent, upon the condition of the roads, the supply of water, forage, etc.; also upon the advantages to be gained over an enemy.

Infantry marches at the rate in common time of 90 steps = 70 yards in one minute, or 2 miles 680 yards in an hour; in quick time, 110 steps = 86 yards in one minute, or 2 miles 1613 yards in an hour; in double time, 165 steps = 151¹⁄₄ yards in one minute, or 5 miles 275 yards in an hour. Under ordinary circumstances infantry should march from 15 to 20 miles a day, halting about ten minutes every hour.

Cavalry should march about 20 miles a day, and be kept at a walk, halting several times during the day, when the men should dismount and permit the horses to refresh themselves by giving them a few mouthfuls of grass and water. On a forced march the horses should not be halted, but they should be relieved fifteen minutes every hour by dismounting the men and requiring them to march. For selection of cavalry horses, rate of speed at a trot, gallop, etc., see HORSE.

The march of artillery should be governed by the movements of the arms of the service to which it is assigned for duty. The care of men and horses is a combination of what has been laid down for cavalry and infantry. For the rates of march of, and loads carried by, artillery horses, see PACK AND DRAUGHT HORSES.

=Marchands= (_Fr._). Slop-sellers, petty sutlers. Men of this description always flock round and follow an army on its march. As they generally deal in articles which are required by the officers and soldiers, it is the business of every general to see them properly treated, to insure their safety, and to permit them, under certain regulations, to have access to the camp.

=Marcher.= One who marches. In ancient times the lord or officer who defended the marches or borders of a territory.

=Marches.= A frontier, a border. In English history, the boundary between England and Wales, also between England and Scotland.