Part 57

=Issues.= In the British service, are certain sums of money which are, at stated periods, given to public accountants for public service; and for the honest distribution of which, every individual so intrusted is responsible to Parliament. _Regimental issues_ are moneys paid by regimental agents, acting under the authority of their respective colonels, for regimental purposes.

=Issus.= An ancient city and seaport in Cilicia, in Asia Minor, close to the frontier of Syria, on or near the head of the Sinus Issicus, now the Gulf of Scanderoon. It was in the neighborhood of this city that Alexander the Great annihilated the Persian army under Darius in 333 B.C. Here too was fought (194 A.D.), the bloody battle between Septimus Severus and Pescennius Niger, by virtue of which the former became sole master of the Roman empire. The exact site of Issus has not yet been discovered.

=Istalif.= A town of Afghanistan, province of Cabul (Cabool). It was taken and partly destroyed by the British in 1842.

=Italy.= A peninsula in the south of Europe. The invading Pelasgians from Greece, and the aborigines (Umbrians, Oscans, and Etruscans), combined, formed the renowned Latin race still possessing the southern part of Europe. The history of Italy is soon absorbed into that of Rome, founded 753 B.C. Previous to the 15th century it was desolated by intestine wars and the interference of the German emperors; since then, Spain, France, and Germany have struggled for the possession of the country, which has been divided among them several times. Spain predominated in Italy during the 16th and 17th centuries; but was compelled to yield to the house of Austria at the beginning of the 18th century. The victories of Bonaparte in 1797-98 changed the government of Italy; but the Austrian rule was re-established at the peace of 1814. In 1848 the Milanese and Venetians revolted and joined Piedmont, but were subdued by Radetzky. The hostile feeling between Austria and Piedmont gradually increased till war broke out in April, 1859, in which the Austrians were defeated, and the kingdom of Italy was re-established in 1861. Another war with Austria was declared in June, 1866, but peace was signed in October, same year, and Venetia was ceded to Italy. For other details, see ROME and the various Italian cities throughout this volume.

=Ithome.= A mountain fortress of Messenia, memorable for the defense there made for many years against the Spartans in the first Messenian war. It was afterwards the citadel of Messene, when that city was founded by Epaminondas.

=Itinerairies= (_Fr._). Itinerary movements or days of march. A technical phrase among the French to denote the order and the disposition which a body of men or an army is directed to observe in its march from one camp to another, or to any particular quarter or destination.

=Itzehoe.= An ancient town in the duchy of Holstein. The original castle around which Itzehoe was built by Charlemagne in 809. This town was twice taken by Tilly in the Thirty Years’ War, and in 1657 a great portion of it was burned down by the Swedes.

=Ivry-la-Bataille.= A town of France, department of Eure, 40 miles west of Paris. It is celebrated for the decisive victory which was gained by Henry IV. of Navarre over the forces under the Duke of Mayenne in 1590.

=Ixcaquixtla.= A town in the southern part of the state of Puebla, Mexico. It is noted in Mexican history as the scene of a sharp battle fought January 1, 1817, between Mexican insurgents under Gen. Mier of Teran, and the Spanish troops under La Madrid.

=Izucar.= A city of the state of Puebla, Mexico. Near here Gen. Matamoros, lighting for the independence of his country, gained a victory over the Spaniards, February 24, 1812.

J.

=Jaca=, or =Jacca=. A fortified town of Spain, in the province of Aragon, situated at the foot of the Pyrenees, on the river Aragon. It is a town of great antiquity, and, from its position, has been the scene of many sanguinary contests. Its occupation was eagerly coveted by every invader of the Peninsula, from Cato and Julius Cæsar to the generals of Napoleon.

=Jack.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Jack= (Fr. _jacque_). A coat of defensive armor, quilted and covered with leather, worn particularly by horsemen; a buff-jerkin; rarely, a coat of mail.

=Jack, Hydraulic.= See HYDRAULIC JACK.

=Jack in the Box.= A very handy engine, consisting of a large wooden male-screw turning in a female one, which forms the upper part of a strong wooden box, shaped like the frustum of a pyramid. It is used by means of levers passing through holes in it as a press in packing, and for other purposes.

=Jack Wambasium.= A sort of coat armor, formerly worn by horsemen, not of solid iron but of many plates fastened together, which some persons by tenure were bound to furnish upon any invasion.

=Jack-boots.= Cavalry boots, made of thick, firm leather, hardened in a peculiar manner. They were sometimes lined with plates of iron.

=Jacket.= A short, close garment, extending downward to the hips; a short military coat is so called. In the manufacture of ordnance a tube inclosing and reinforcing another tube is called a jacket.

=Jack-man.= One wearing a jack; a horse-soldier; a retainer.

=Jack-screw.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Jacob, St.= A Swiss hamlet, about a mile south of Basle, on the Bienne road, and the scene of a great battle fought in 1444, between 1600 Swiss and a vastly more numerous French force, under the dauphin, afterwards Louis XI. The Swiss fought for ten hours, slew three times their number of the enemy, but were themselves cut off to 10 men. This battle is known as the “Swiss Thermopylæ.”

=Jacobins.= One of those clubs which played so conspicuous a part in the first French revolution. In 1792 they took the name of “The Society of the Friends of Liberty and Equality.” Immediately after the fall of the king, the Jacobins began that struggle against the Girondists which ended in the destruction of the latter. After the fall of Robespierre during the Convention they rapidly lost influence, and were at last suppressed.

=Jacobites.= This name was given to those who, at the English revolution in 1688, adhered to the cause of the dethroned James II. In Ireland the adherents of the Stuarts rose in rebellion, but were vanquished by force of arms. In Scotland attempts were made in 1715 and 1745 by the descendants and adherents of James II. to expel the house of Hanover. Both were unsuccessful, and involved the ruin of many noble families.

=Jacob’s-staff.= A mathematical instrument for taking heights and distances, used by military engineers.

=Jacquerie, Insurrection of the.= The name given to the war of the French peasantry, which broke out in 1358. The immediate occasion of it was the enormities perpetrated by Charles the Bad, king of Navarre, and his adherents; but it was really caused by long-continued oppression on the part of the nobles. Suddenly rising against their lords, the peasants laid hundreds of castles in ruins, murdered the nobles, and violated their wives and daughters, practicing every enormity, and acting, as they said, on the principle of doing as had been done to them. For some weeks they were successful; but the magnitude of the danger induced the nobles to make common cause against them, and on June 9 the peasants were defeated with great slaughter near Meaux by Captal de Buch and Count of Foix. This put an end to the insurrection.

=Jade= (_Fr._). A very hard stone, of an olive color, from which the handles of swords and sabres are manufactured in Poland and Turkey.

=Jaen.= Formerly an independent Moorish kingdom; is now a province of Spain. It was conquered by the Moors on their entrance into Spain. Jaen maintained its independence as a Moorish state till 1234, when it fell into the hands of Ferdinand III., and was added to the kingdom of Castile.

=Jaffa=, =Yafa=, or =Joppa=. A town of Asiatic Turkey, in the province of Syria, on the Mediterranean. This place attained its greatest prosperity in the times of the Crusaders, when it became the principal landing-place of the warriors of Christendom. In 1799 it was stormed by the French under Bonaparte, and here was perpetrated his shameful massacre of Turkish prisoners. In 1832, Mohammed Ali made himself master of it; but the Turks, with the assistance of the British and Austrians, took it from him again in 1840.

=Jaffna=, or =Jaffnapatam=. The capital of the district of Jaffnapatam, in Ceylon. The town is fortified, and possesses a good citadel; but it was taken, after a short resistance, by the British troops in 1795.

=Jaghire.= An Indian term, signifying the assignment of the revenues of a district to a servant or dependant of government, who is hence called _Jaghirdar_. Jaghires are frequently given in India to persons as a reward and compensation for their military services.

=Jaghire Asham.= An Indian term, signifying land granted for the support of the troops.

=Jahpoor.= A town of Hindostan, in the presidency of Bengal, 15 miles from Agra. This place has been the scene of two decisive battles; the first fought in 1688, between Aurungzebe and his brother Darah Sheeoh; and the second, in 1707, between Alum and Azain Usbaum, all Indian princes.

=Jalapa.= A city of the Mexican confederation, 60 miles west-northwest of Vera Cruz. In 1847-48 the American troops occupied it.

=Jalet= (_Fr._). See GALET.

=Jalons= (_Fr._). Long poles with a wisp of straw at the top. They are fixed at different places and in different roads, to serve as signals of observation to advancing columns, when the country is inclosed, etc. They are likewise used as camp colors to mark out the ground on days of exercise.

=Jamaica.= One of the West India Islands, or Greater Antilles, which belongs to Great Britain, and forms the most considerable and valuable of its possessions in that quarter. It was discovered by Columbus in 1494, and colonized by the Spaniards in the early part of the 16th century. In 1655 it was taken by the English, when 3000 British soldiers who had served in the Parliamentary army settled there. In 1866 a revolt of a large portion of the negro population took place, which was promptly suppressed.

=Jamb.= To squeeze tight.

=Jambeaux=, or =Jambes= (_Fr._). Greaves; armor for the legs, made of waxed leather or metal; much used in the Middle Ages.

=James of the Sword, St.= A military order in Spain, instituted in 1170 under the reign of Ferdinand II., king of Leon and Galicia. Its object was to put a stop to the incursions of the Moors; these knights obliging themselves by a vow to secure the roads. The highest dignity in that order is that of grand master, which has been united to the crown of Spain. The knights were obliged to give proof of their descent from families that had been noble for four generations on both sides; they were also required to make it appear that their ancestors were neither Jews, Saracens, nor heretics, nor had ever been called into question by the Inquisition.

=James Island.= One of the sea islands of Charleston Co., S. C., having Charleston harbor and Ashley River on the north. The battle of Secessionville (June 11, 1863) and several other spirited engagements occurred upon this island during the late civil war.

=James Projectile.= See PROJECTILES.

=James Rifle.= An American sporting rifle, which was popular many years ago.

=James, St.= A town of France, in the department of Manche. William the Conqueror built a strong fortress here, which remained in possession of the English till 1448.

=Jamestown.= A former village of James City Co., Va., on the north bank of the James River. The first English settlement in the United States was made at this place in 1608, but nothing now remains but a few ruins. The forces of Wayne and Lord Cornwallis had an engagement near here in 1781.

=Jangar.= A kind of ponton constructed of two boats with a platform laid across them, which is used by the natives in the East Indies to convey horses, cattle, etc., across rivers.

=Janissar-Agasi.= Commander-in-chief of the Janissaries.

=Janissaries= (Turk, _ieni tcheri_, “new soldiers”). An order of infantry in the Turkish army: originally prisoners trained to arms; were first organized by Orcan, about 1330, and remodeled by his son Amurath I., 1360; their numbers being increased by following sultans. In later days they degenerated from their strict discipline, and several times deposed the sultan. During an insurrection, June 14-15, 1826, when nearly 3000 of them were killed, the Ottoman army was reorganized, and a firman was issued on June 17 abolishing the Janissaries.

=Januarius, Order of St.= An order of knighthood founded by King Charles of Sicily (afterwards Charles III. of Spain) on July 6, 1738. It was abolished after the French invasion of 1806, and re-introduced in 1814. The badge is a gold octagonal white and red enameled cross, with gold lilies in the upper and side angles. The obverse represents St. Januarius in episcopal robes with an open book. The round middle of the reverse shows a golden open book, and two phials partly filled with blood. The knights are either _Cavalieri di Giustizia_, who must count four noble generations, or _Cavalieri di Grazia_.

=Japan.= An Asiatic empire, composed of Japan, or Niphon, and 3850 isles, with nearly 40,000,000 inhabitants. For military events in Japan, see separate articles in this book.

=Jargeau.= A town of France, in the department Loiret, 10 miles from Orleans. This place was taken, after a short siege, by the Earl of Salisbury, in 1428.

=Jarnac.= A town of France, situated on the Charente. The Protestants under Coligny and the Prince of Condé were defeated near Jarnac in 1659, when the latter was slain.

=Jassy=, or =Yassy=. The chief town of Moldavia, and the residence of the hospodar or prince of that country. Jassy has been frequently taken by the Russians, but it has always been restored at the conclusion of each war with Turkey. In 1822 it was burned by the Janissaries, from which disaster it has never recovered.

=Jauts=, or =Jats=. A people of Hindostan, who have at different times made some figure in its annals. The first historical mention of them occurs in the beginning of the 11th century, on the invasion of India by Mahmoud the Gaznevide, when they were completely defeated and driven into the mountainous districts of the interior of India. We find them afterwards, under the growing imbecility of Aurungzebe’s successors, continually extending their conquests. They suffered a reverse, however, at the hands of Ahmed Shah, the sovereign of Cabul, who invaded Northern India, and overran a great portion of their territory. The Jaut chief afterwards became an ally of Ahmed Shah, having treacherously betrayed his former allies, the Mahrattas, at the battle of Paniput, January 14, 1761. When the British power became predominant, the rajah of the Jauts, Rungeet Sing, sought security by concluding a treaty by which he agreed to assist England against all enemies, and by this means he retained the government of his territories. In 1808, however, on the defeat of Holkar by the British, he received into Bhurtpore the discomfited army. The city was besieged, and cost the British an immense number of lives; but at length, despairing of effectual resistance, the rajah agreed to compel Holkar to quit the place. For this breach of the terms of the treaty he was compelled by the English to pay a heavy fine. Disputes about the succession to the throne afterwards led to the interference of the British, and the hitherto impregnable fortress of Bhurtpore was taken by Lord Combermere, January 18, 1826, after a desperate resistance on the part of the Jauts.

=Java.= A large island in the Eastern Archipelago; is said to have been reached by the Portuguese in 1511, and by the Dutch in 1595. The latter, who now possess it, built Batavia, the capital, about 1619. The atrocious massacre of 20,000 of the unarmed natives by the Dutch, sparing neither women nor children, to possess their effects, took place in 1740. The island capitulated to the British, September 18, 1811; but it was restored to Holland in 1814.

=Javelin= (Lat. _pilum_). A short and light spear used for darting against an enemy. In the ancient Roman legions, the first and second lines were armed with them, and in those days they were considered excellent offensive weapons.

=Je Maintiendrai= (“I will maintain”). The motto of the house of Nassau. When William III. came to the throne of England, he continued this, but added “the liberties of England and the Protestant religion,” at the same time ordering that the old motto of the royal arms, “_Dieu et mon droit_” should be retained on the great seal, 1689.

=Jean de Pied de Port, St.= A town of France, in the department of the Lower Pyrenees, on the Nive. Near this place is the pass of Roncevaux, or Roncesvalles, where, in 778, the army of Charlemagne was defeated, and Rolland, the distinguished Paladin, mortally wounded.

=Jelalabad.= A town of Afghanistan; capital of a province of the same name, 75 miles southeast from Cabul (Cabool). It is memorable for the successful resistance made there in 1841-42 by Sir Robert Sale, with a handful of British troops against a large besieging force of Afghans. Its fortifications were destroyed by the British in 1842, when they evacuated the country.

=Jeloudar.= An East Indian term, signifying to belong to the train or equipage.

=Jemadar.= A native lieutenant in an Indian native infantry or cavalry regiment.

=Jemappes.= A village and commune of Belgium, in the province of Hainault, 2 miles west from Mons. In 1792, the French under Dumouriez gained a great victory over the Austrians near this place.

=Jemaulabad.= A town and fortress in the south of India, province of Canara, which was originally called Narasingha Augady. The first, which was built by Tippoo, stands on the summit of an immense rock, which may be deemed impregnable, as it is wholly inaccessible except by one narrow way. After the fall of Seringapatam, it sustained a siege of six weeks from the British, when being bombarded, it was taken, and the commander having poisoned himself, his principal officers were hanged. It was afterwards surprised and taken by a band of insurgents or plunderers, when it was reduced, after a blockade of three months, and all that did not escape were summarily executed.

=Jena.= A town of Germany, in the grand duchy Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, situated in a romantic valley at the confluence of the Leutra with the Saale. In this vicinity was fought the great battle of Jena, October 14, 1806, between the French and Prussian armies, in which the latter was totally defeated.

=Jenizer-effendi.= An appointment among the Turks, which in some degree resembles that of provost-marshal in European armies. The only functions which this officer is permitted to exercise are those of judge to the company. He sits on particular days for the purpose of hearing the complaints of the soldiers, and of settling their differences. If a case of peculiar difficulty should occur, he reports the case to the _Aga_, whose opinion and determination are final.

=Jericho.= Once one of the most flourishing cities of Palestine, situated a few miles northeast of Jerusalem. The Israelites captured and destroyed it on their first entry into Canaan. In the time of Herod it was rebuilt, but was destroyed in the reign of Vespasian, and again rebuilt under Hadrian. During the Crusades, it was repeatedly captured, and at last destroyed. At the present day its place is occupied by a miserable village called Richa.

=Jersey.= One of the Channel Islands, and the largest and most southerly of the group, situated about 15 miles west from the coast of France, and belonging to Great Britain. Various attempts have been made by the French to possess themselves of this island, but without success. The most remarkable was in 1781, when they were repulsed by the local militia.

=Jerusalem.= A celebrated city of Syria, the capital of the ancient Judæa and the modern Palestine. This city was called Salem in 1913 B.C.; its king was slain by Joshua, 1451 B.C. It was taken by David, 1048 B.C., who dwelt in the fort, calling it the City of David. Jerusalem was taken by the Persians in 614; retaken by the emperor Heraclius, 628; by the Saracens, 637; and by the Crusaders, when 70,000 infidels were put to the sword; taken by Saladin, 1187; by the Turks, who drove away the Saracens, 1217 and 1239. It was held by the French under Bonaparte, February, 1799.

=Jet= (_Fr._). A term signifying the motion of any body that is urged forward by main force; it likewise means the space which is gone over by any propelled body; and sometimes the instrument from which anything is thrown or shot; as, the cross-bow, etc. _Jet des bombes_ is a phrase adopted instead of _tir_, which formerly expressed the course that a shell took when it was thrown out of a mortar by the power of gunpowder.

=Jets.= See PYROTECHNY.

=Jiddah=, or =Jeddah=. A trading town of the Hedjaz, Arabia, about 60 miles west from Mecca. On June 15, 1858, the inhabitants rose against the Christians resident among them, and massacred a considerable number of them. In August of the same year the town was bombarded by the British, and satisfaction rendered.

=Jingal=, or =Jingall=. A small, portable piece of ordnance, to be fired from the ground or on a wall, resting on a long, slender butt-end, and two legs. This piece was used in India. See GINGALS.

=Joar.= An East Indian term, signifying a general massacre of the women and children, which is sometimes performed by the Hindoos, when they find they cannot prevent the enemy from taking the town. When this dreadful and unnatural ceremony is to take place, a spot is selected which is filled with wood, straw, oil, etc. The victims are inclosed and the whole is set on fire.

=John (St.) of Jerusalem, Knights of.= See SAINT JOHN OF JERUSALEM, THE ORDER OF THE KNIGHTS HOSPITALLERS OF.

=Join.= A technical word used in the British service, signifying to effect the junction of one military body with another. In a more limited sense, it means the accession of an individual, voluntary or otherwise, to a corps or army. If an officer, on being ordered to join, omits to do so willfully, he is liable to be tried by a general court-martial, or to be peremptorily suspended for being absent without leave.

=Jooday Perraput.= An East Indian term, signifying a slave taken in war.

=Jour= (_Fr._). The tour of duty which is done in the course of a day and night. _Etre de jour_, to be officer of the day, or to command a body of troops at a siege or otherwise in the capacity of a general officer, etc.

=Journal= (_Fr._). A public record or general orderly book, kept in the French service, and in which every transaction that occurred during a siege is entered by the governor of the town, for the inspection of a superior authority. The general officer who carried on the siege of a place likewise kept a document of the same kind, and minuted down everything that happened under his command. So that the journal which was kept in this manner was a circumstantial detail of what occurred, day after day, during the attack and defense of a town.

=Journals of Defense.= In the American service during war, the commander of a place, and the chiefs of engineers and of artillery, shall keep journals of defense, in which shall be entered, in order of date, without blank or interlineation, the orders given or received, the manner in which they are executed, their results, and every event and circumstance of importance in the progress of the defense. These journals shall be sent after the siege to the Department of War.