Part 34

=Eupatoria=, or =Koslov=. A town of Russia, on the west coast of the Crimea. In September, 1854, the allied English and French armies landed near here, and the town soon after was occupied by a small detachment. The Turks subsequently occupied it, and in 1855 it was attacked by the Russians, who, however, were repulsed by the Turks, and the Anglo-French ships of war, lying in the neighboring roadstead.

=Eureka Projectile.= See PROJECTILE.

=Europe.= The least extensive, but most civilized of the five great divisions of the globe. It is bounded by the sea in all directions, except the east, where it is separated from Asia by a boundary-line, formed by the river Kara, the Ural Mountains and River, and the Caspian Sea. For military and naval events which occurred in Europe, see separate articles.

=Eurymedon= (now _Kapri-Su_). A small river in Pamphylia, celebrated for the victory which Cimon gained over the Persians on its banks, 469 B.C.

=Eustace, St.= In Lower Canada; the rebels were defeated here, December 14, 1837, and compelled to surrender their arms. Their chiefs fled.

=Eustatius, St.= A West India island, which was settled by the Dutch in 1632; taken by the French in 1689; by the English in 1690; again by the British forces under Rodney and Vaughan, February 3, 1781. It was recovered by the French, November 26, same year. It was again captured by the British in 1801 and 1810, and restored to the Dutch in 1814.

=Eutaw Springs.= A small affluent of the Santee River, in South Carolina. On its banks was fought, September 8, 1781, the battle of this name. Gen. Greene, determining to dispossess the British of their remaining posts, with about 2000 men attacked their forces under Col. Stuart. The British were routed and fled; but finding in their flight some objects affording shelter, rallied and repulsed their assailants, and Gen. Greene finding it impossible to dislodge them, retreated to his camp with 500 prisoners. The British loss was about 1000; the American about 600.

=Euxine Sea.= See BLACK SEA.

=Evacuate.= To withdraw from a town or fortress, in consequence either of a treaty or a capitulation, or of superior orders.

=Evagination.= An unsheathing or drawing out of a sheath or scabbard.

=Evesham.= A borough and market town of England, in Worcestershire, on the Avon. Near this place a battle was fought between Prince Edward, son of Henry III., and Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, August 4, 1265.

=Evidence.= Is that which makes clear, demonstrates, or ascertains the truth of the very fact or point in issue. Hearsay evidence, the declaration of what one has heard from others. This species of evidence is not admissible in courts-martial.

=Evocati.= Were a class of soldiers among the Romans, who, after having served their full time in the army, entered as volunteers to accompany some favorite general. Hence they were likewise called _emereti_ and _beneficiarii_.

=Evocation.= A religious ceremony which was observed among the Romans at the commencement of a siege, wherein they solemnly called upon the gods and goddesses of the place to forsake it and come over to them. When any place surrendered they always took it for granted that their prayer had been heard.

=Evolutions.= Are the movements of troops in order to change position. The object may be to maintain or sustain a post, to occupy a new post, to improve an attack, or to improve a defense. All such movements as marching, countermarching, changing front, forming line, facing, wheeling, making column or line, defiling, deploying, etc., come under the general heading of evolutions.

=Evreux= (anc. _Mediolanum_). A city of France, capital of the department of Eure. It has sustained several sieges, and was burned by Henry I. of England in 1119.

=Examination, Boards of.= See BOARDS OF EXAMINATION.

=Exarchs.= Were appointed by the Byzantine emperors of the East, to govern Central Italy after its conquest by Belisarius and Narses, 548. They ruled from 568 to 752, when Eutychus, the last, was overcome by Astolphus the Lombard.

=Exauctoratio.= In the Roman military discipline, differed from the _missio_, which was a full discharge, and took place after soldiers had served in the army twenty years; whereas the exauctoratio was only a partial discharge; they lost their pay, indeed, but still kept under their colors or vexilla, though not under the aquila or eagle, which was the standard of the legion; whence instead of _legionarii_, they were called _subsignani_, and were retained till they had either served their full time, or had lands assigned them. The exauctoratio took place after they had served seventeen years.

=Excavation.= The art of cutting or otherwise making hollows in the earth; also the cavity formed.

=Exchange.= The act of two officers changing regiments, battalions, or batteries. The mutual giving up of an equal number of prisoners by hostile states or armies. In this sort of exchange an officer, according to his rank, is reckoned as equal to a certain number of men or of officers of a lower grade than his own.

=Excubiæ.= In ancient warfare, the watches and guards kept in the day by the Roman soldiers. They differed from the _vigiliæ_, which were kept in the night.

=Execution, Military.= Is the pillaging or plundering of a country by the enemy’s army. Military execution also means every kind of punishment inflicted in the army by the sentence of a court-martial; which is of various kinds, including putting a soldier to death by shooting him, which is the ordinary punishment of deserters to the enemy, mutineers, etc. This form of death is considered less disgraceful than hanging by the neck.

=Exempt.= Not subject, not liable to. Men of certain age are exempt from serving in the militia. An aide-de-camp and brigade-major are exempt from all regimental duties while serving in those capacities. Officers on courts-martial are sometimes exempt from all other duties until the court is dissolved.

=Exercise.= The practice of all those motions and actions, together with the whole management of arms, which are essential to the perfection of a soldier, and the rendering him fit for service.

=Exercise, Artillery.= Is the method of teaching the regiments of artillery the use and practice of all the various machines of war belonging to that particular arm of the service.

=Exon.= In England, an officer of the Yeomen of the Royal Guard; an exempt.

=Exostre= (_Fr._). Bridge of the _Helepole_ or movable tower of the ancients, by which they passed upon a wall during a siege.

=Expanding System of Projectiles.= See PROJECTILES, RIFLE.

=Expedient.= A stratagem in warfare.

=Expedition.= Is an enterprise taken by sea or by land against an enemy, the fortunate termination of which depends on the rapidity and unexpected nature of its movements. It is usually intrusted to a commander of acknowledged talents and experience.

=Expense Magazines.= Are small powder-magazines containing ammunition, etc., made up for present use. There is usually one in each bastion.

=Experiments.= The trials or applications of any kind of military machines in order to ascertain their practical qualities and uses.

=Expiration of Service.= The termination of a soldier’s contract of enlistment.

=Explode.= To burst with a loud report; to detonate, as gunpowder, or a shell filled with powder or the like material.

=Explosion.= The sudden enlargement of the volume of a body by its conversion into gas or vapor. (See EXPLOSIVES.) The explosion of powder may be divided into three distinct parts, viz.: ignition, inflammation, and combustion, all of which see under their proper headings.

=Explosives.= Substances the elements of which under certain conditions suddenly undergo a chemical rearrangement into gases, giving rise to great pressures on surrounding bodies. Modern writers recognize two different kinds of explosions,--_explosions of the 1st order_, or _detonations_, and _explosions of the 2d order_, or _rapid combustions_. Detonating explosions are practically instantaneous. The explosion is supposed to be propagated by a vibration throughout the mass. Ordinary explosions are propagated by inflammation. _Gunpowder_, which may be taken as a type of explosives of the 2d order, burns at a certain rate, depending upon the density. When a charge is fired the inflammation spreads from the point of ignition to all parts of the charge,--each grain is successively enveloped and burned from surface to centre. The _velocity of inflammation_ is the greater in proportion to the degree of confinement from the increased tension of the gases. The _velocity of combustion_ is the rate at which the solid grains are burned. It is measured by the distance passed over by the burning surface (the line being taken perpendicular to the surface) in the unit of time. Time thus enters into the explosion of gunpowder and gives it its peculiar value as a ballistic agent.

In the _detonating explosives_, the case is very different. These bodies may be supposed to be made up of molecules containing so many atoms of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, etc., so placed as to be held in a state of equilibrium by their mutual attractions and repulsions, but this equilibrium is unstable; that is to say, each atom has only a very small arc of vibration in which the molecule is stable. If by any cause an atom is forced beyond this limit the equilibrium of the whole mass is destroyed, and the elements instantly rearrange themselves under the influence of the chemical affinities which obtain under the particular conditions of the explosion. This kind of explosion is brought about in various ways,--by percussion, concussion, heat, etc.,--some bodies being susceptible to one mode of firing more than another. The theory which offers the best explanation of the various phenomena is that the molecular balance is peculiarly susceptible to overturn by certain vibrations. The vibrations given out by the explosion of the fulminates seem to have the widest range in bringing about the detonation of different substances. For this reason the fulminate of mercury is the universal _detonating agent_. Its own susceptibility to explosion by heat, percussion, and the electric spark especially fits it for this work. Wet gun-cotton requires in addition to the fulminate a “primer” of dry gun-cotton.

=Explosives, Composition of.= _Ordinary explosives_ of which gunpowder is the type are _mechanical mixtures_ of two essential ingredients,--one a combustible, the other an oxidizing agent. The combustible is usually carbon,--sometimes associated with hydrogen. It may be sulphur or any substance having a great affinity for oxygen. Organic substances containing carbon and hydrogen are frequently used. In the chemical reaction the carbon is oxidized to carbonic acid and the hydrogen to water with the evolution of great heat.

The oxidizing substances ordinarily used are the nitrates and chlorates. Mixtures containing nitrates are the most stable, since the nitrate is comparatively slow to give up its oxygen. The chlorate mixtures are sensitive to friction and percussion, and explode with great quickness. Many of them are unsafe to handle. A new mode of preparing chlorate mixtures has been suggested which avoids this danger. A _combustible liquid_ is used, being absorbed in cakes or lumps of potassium or other chlorate.

_Detonating explosives_ are _chemical compounds_. Among them are _chloride_ and _iodide of nitrogen_. Both are dangerous, violent explosives of which no practical use has been made.

The _fulminates_ are salts of fulminic acid. The _fulminate of mercury_ is the one in common use. See FULMINATES.

The _nitro-substitution_ compounds form a large class, comprising the most important of the higher explosives. They are all formed by the action of nitric acid on organic substances containing oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen. This action is to replace hydrogen (H) in the organic substance by hyponitric acid (NO₂) (in the acid), equivalent for equivalent. Sulphuric acid is generally mixed with the nitric, though it plays no direct part in the reaction, being used to absorb the water formed and prevent the dilution of the nitric acid.

_Nitro-glycerine_, the most powerful explosive in common use, is formed by the action of the acids on glycerine. See NITRO-GLYCERINE.

_Nitro-starch_ and _nitro-mannite_ are analogous substances, formed by the action of the acids on starch and sugar.

_Gun-cotton_ is produced by the action of the acids on cotton-wool--a form of cellulose. See GUN-COTTON.

There are varieties of all these compounds produced, by the substitution of different numbers of equivalents of hyponitric acid, but the names are specially given to the most highly nitrated forms.

_Picric acid_, the salts of which form the well-known _picrates_, is made by the action of the acids on carbolic acid.

To heighten the effect of the lower forms of nitro-substitution compounds they are usually mixed with an oxidizing agent, such as _nitrate_ or _chlorate_, which supplies the deficient oxygen. This is exemplified in Schultz’s wood powder (which see), and Reeve’s gun felt.

The picrates are similarly treated. Ammonium picrate mixed with nitre forms Abel’s _picric_ powder (Burgess’s powder). This has been used as a bursting charge for shells.

Mixtures of two high explosives have also been used, as in glyoxiline, invented by Prof. Abel, which is gun-cotton saturated with nitro-glycerine.

Explosive effect depends upon three elements,--1st, the volume of the gases produced taken at a standard temperature; 2d, the heat evolved in the chemical reaction; 3d, the time consumed in the development of the gases. Explosive effect is directly proportional to the first two of these elements, and inversely proportional to the third. According to Bertholet, nitro-glycerine gives out twice as much heat and three and a half times as much gas as an equal weight of gunpowder, but this gives no idea of their relative explosive effects, as the element of time in the detonating explosives is so short that it cannot be calculated. So nearly is this element absent that we may consider these explosions as almost perfect Impulsive Forces. To secure _ballistic effect_ requires the gradual application of force. When motion is imparted to a body the inertia developed is inversely proportional to the time consumed in imparting it. This resistance to motion becomes enormously great when the detonating explosives are used. For this reason their ballistic effect is small. The force which should give the projectile motion is expended in producing molecular changes in both projectile and gun. The same quality, however, fits them especially for blasting and torpedoes, where shattering effect is desirable.

=Express Rifle.= A modern sporting rifle of great killing power, used in hunting large or dangerous animals. They were first introduced in England, and have become celebrated in the hands of African travelers and explorers. The principle consists in using large charges of powder and a light bullet, which gives a very high initial velocity and a trajectory practically a right line for 150 or 200 yards, hence the term “Express.” To increase the killing power of the bullet it is made of pure lead and has a hollow point. Upon striking game the bullet spreads outwardly, giving a fearful death-wound. Moreover, for specially ugly game a small explosive cartridge can be dropped into the cavity in the point, making it an explosive bullet. (See BULLETS, EXPRESS.) In England a caliber as large as .57 is used for some Express rifles. In the United States a caliber of .45 or .50 is considered sufficient.

=Expugn.= To conquer; to take by assault.

=Expugnable.= Capable of being expugned, forced or conquered.

=Expugnation.= The act of taking by assault; conquest.

=Expugner.= One who expugns or conquers.

=Extend.= A term peculiarly applicable to light infantry movements, when the files are frequently loosened, and the front of the line extended for the purpose of skirmishing. When the divisions of a column are made to occupy a greater space of ground, they are said to extend their front.

=Exterior Crest.= The crest of the exterior slope of a parapet.

=Exterior Form of Cannon.= See ORDNANCE, EXTERIOR FORM.

=Exterior Side.= In fortification, is the side of the polygon, upon which a front of fortification is formed.

=Exterior Slope.= In fortification, is the slope given to the outside of a parapet. It is found by experience that earth of common quality will naturally acquire a slope of 45°, even when battered by cannon. This inclination is therefore given to the slope.

=External Injuries to Cannon.= See INJURIES TO CANNON.

=Extortion.= Under the modern laws of war, honorable men no longer permit the use of any violence against prisoners in order to extort information or to punish them for having given false information.

=Extrados= (_Fr._). The exterior surface of a regular arch, used in the construction of powder-magazines.

=Extraordinaries of the Army.= In the English service, the allowances to troops beyond the gross pay in the pay office, come under this head. Such are the expenses for barracks, marches, encampments, staff, etc.

=Extraordinarii.= In the ancient Roman army, a select body of men consisting of the third part of the foreign cavalry and a fifth of the infantry. These were carefully separated from the other forces borrowed from the confederate states, in order to prevent any treacherous coalition between them. From among the extraordinarii a more choice body of men were drawn, under the name of _ablecti_. See ABLECTI.

=Eylau=, or =Eilau=. Usually called Prussian Eylau, a town in the government of Königsberg, celebrated for the battle fought here between Napoleon and the allies--Russians and Prussians--under Bennigsen, February 8, 1807. The French force amounted to about 80,000, and the allies numbered 58,000, but were superior in artillery. The French claimed the victory, chiefly because the allied forces, unable to recruit their strength, were ordered to retreat from the field on the night of the battle, and to retire upon Königsberg. The loss of the allies is estimated at about 20,000, while that of the French must have been considerably greater.

F.

=Face.= A term of varied application. In fortification, it is an appellation given to several parts of a fortress, as the _face of the bastion_, which is the two sides, reaching from the flanks to the salient angles. The _prolonged or extended face_ is that part of the line of defense which is terminated by the curtain and the angle of the shoulder. Strictly taken, it is the line of defense _rayant_, diminished by the face of the bastion.

=Face.= In tactics, is the turning of a soldier on his heels as a “right face”; also the word of command for the movement. _To face_ is to turn on the heels.

=Face of a Piece.= In gunnery, is the terminating plane perpendicular to the axis of the bore.

=Face of a Place.= In fortification, is the front comprehended between the flanked angles of two neighboring bastions, composed of a curtain, two flanks, and two faces; and is sometimes called the _tenaille of the place_.

=Faces of a Square.= The sides of a battalion when formed in square.

=Fachon.= An Anglo-Norman term for a sword or falchion.

=Facing.= A covering, a plating.

=Facings.= The movements of soldiers by turning on their heels to the right, left, right-about, left-about, etc. _To put one through one’s facings_, is to examine into his elementary knowledge, to test his pretensions.

=Facings.= Are also the cuffs and collars of a military coat, and are generally of a different color from that of the coat.

=Faction.= In ancient history, one of the troops or bodies of combatants in the games of the circus, especially of the horse-races.

=Faction.= A term applied in an ill sense to any party in a state that offers uncompromising opposition to the measures of the government, or that endeavors to excite public discontent upon unreasonable grounds.

=Faction= (_Fr._). The duty done by a private soldier when he patrols, goes the round, etc., but most especially when he does duty as a sentinel. The French usually say, _entrer en faction_, to come upon duty; _etre en faction_, to be upon duty; _sortir de faction_, to come off duty.

=Factionnaire= (_Fr._). _Soldat factionnaire_, a soldier that does every species of detail duty. The term _factionnaire_ was likewise applicable to the duty done by officers in the old French service.

=Faenza= (anc. _Faventia_). A town in Central Italy, 19 miles southwest of Ravenna. Faventia is noted in history as the place where Carbo and Norbanus were defeated with great loss by Metillus, the general of Sulla, in 82 B.C.

=Fæsulæ.= See FIESOLE.

=Fag-end.= Is the end of any rope. This term is also applied to the end of a rope when it has become untwisted. _To fag out_, to wear out the end of a rope or a piece of canvas.

=Fagnano.= A village of Italy, 12 miles from Verona. In 1799 a battle was fought here between the Austrians and French.

=Fagots.= See FASCINES.

=Fagots.= In military history, were men hired to muster by officers whose companies were not complete; by which means they cheated the public of the men’s pay, and deprived the country of its regular establishment.

=Failure.= An unsuccessful attempt; as, the failure of an expedition.

=Faint.= To lose courage or spirit; to become depressed or despondent.

=Faint-hearted.= Wanting in courage; depressed by fear, easily discouraged or frightened; cowardly, timorous.

=Fairfax=, or =Culpeper Court-house=. A village, the capital of Culpeper Co., Va., on the Orange and Alexandria Railroad. This place was an important strategic point during the civil war (1861-65).

=Fairfield.= A village of Fairfield Co., Conn., situated on Long Island Sound. It was settled in 1659; it was burned in 1779 by order of Gov. Tryon.

=Fair Haven.= A village of Bristol Co., Mass., on Buzzard’s Bay. The town was attacked by the British on September 7, 1788, but they were repulsed without loss.

=Fair Oaks.= A locality in Henrico Co., Va., on the Richmond and York River Railroad, about 7 miles east of Richmond. Here a severe battle took place between the Federals under Gen. McClellan and the Confederate army under Gen. Johnston, May 31-June 1, 1862, in which the latter were defeated, although the former obtained no decisive results from their success. The Union loss was estimated at 5500; the Confederate was somewhat greater.

=Fakir.= A word derived from the Arabic _fakhar_, and designating a member of an order of mendicants or penitents, chiefly in India and the neighboring countries. They live either separately as hermits or solitary mendicants, or unite in large gangs, carrying arms and a banner, beating drums, and sounding horns, whenever they approach a town or village.

=Falarique= (_Fr._) Falarica; combustible darts or arrows of various thicknesses, generally about 3 feet long; close behind the head was lodged the combustible matter by which shipping, etc., was set on fire; it was projected from a bow or catapult.

=Falcair= (_Fr._). A soldier who was armed with a falcarius or short crooked sword.

=Falchion.= A curved sword, or small cimeter.

=Falcon.= An ancient form of cannon, 7 feet in length, carrying a ball of 4 pounds in weight.

=Falconet.= A small cannon anciently used, a little exceeding 6 feet in length, and carrying a ball of 2 pounds in weight.

=Falczi, Peace of.= Concluded between Russia and Turkey, July 2, 1711, the Russians giving up Azof and all their possessions on the Black Sea to the Turks. The Russians were saved from imminent destruction by the address of Catharine, the empress. In 1712 the war was renewed, and terminated by the peace of Constantinople, April 16, 1712.