Part 24

=Colberg=, or =Kolberg=. A strongly fortified seaport of Prussian Pomerania. It stands on a hill, surrounded with swamps which can be laid under water, and is chiefly remarkable for the protracted sieges it has undergone. In 1102, Duke Boleslaus, of Poland, besieged it in vain. It endured long sieges in the Thirty Years’ War and in the Seven Years’ War, and again in 1807, when it was most gallantly defended against the French.

=Colchester.= The chief town in the county of Essex, England. It was taken from the Danes in 921 by Edward the Elder, who founded the castle. It was ravaged by the plague in 1348, in 1360, and again in 1665. In 1648 it was taken by Lord Goring for Charles I., but was retaken by Fairfax after a siege of 11 weeks, when the castle was dismantled.

=Cold Harbor.= A village of Hanover Co., Va., about 10 miles northeast of Richmond. During the civil war a series of desperate struggles took place in and around this place (May 28-June 3, 1864) between the forces of Gens. Grant and Lee, resulting in a loss of probably 13,000 men on the Federal side.

=Coldstream.= A border-town of Scotland, in Berwickshire, on the left bank of the Tweed. Near this place is the famous ford where the English and Scottish armies formerly crossed the Tweed. Here Gen. Monk raised the regiment still known as the Coldstream Guards.

=Coldstream Guards.= A regiment in the Foot Guards, or Household Brigade, is the oldest corps in the British army except the First Foot. It was raised at Coldstream in 1660, by Gen. Monk, and was first called Monk’s regiment, but when Parliament consented to give a brigade of guards to Charles II., this corps, under its present name, was included in it.

=College of Arms.= See HERALD’S COLLEGE.

=Collet= (_Fr._). In gunnery, that part of a cannon which is between the astragal and the muzzle.

=Colmar.= A city of France, capital of the department of Haut-Rhin. This city had an active share in the civil wars under Rodolph of Hapsburg and Adolphe of Nassau; it was captured by the Swedes in 1632; by the French in 1635 and 1673. It was ceded to France by the peace of Ryswick in 1697. Occupied by the Bavarians on January 3, 1814.

=Colocotroni.= See KOLOCOTRONI.

=Cologne.= A fortified city of Prussia, the capital of the province of Rhenish Prussia, on the left bank of the Rhine. It is a fortress of the first rank. It was taken by the French in 1795, and assigned to Prussia in 1814.

=Colombia, United States of.= A republic of South America, known by this name since 1861, but formerly called New Granada. It united with Venezuela in 1819, and established one central government for the purpose of resisting Spain, but in 1829 was separated from it, and soon after another republic--that of Ecuador--was formed from it, three republics being thus formed out of what was formerly but one.

=Colombo.= A fortified seaport town and capital of Ceylon; it was fortified in 1638 by the Portuguese, who were expelled by the Dutch in 1666; the latter surrendered it to the British, February 15, 1796. The British troops were murdered here in cold blood by the Adigar of Candy, June 6, 1803.

=Colonel.= The title of the highest officer of a regiment, ranking next below a brigadier-general, and above a lieutenant-colonel. The rank of captain in the navy corresponds with this title.

=Colonel, Lieutenant-.= The rank next below that of colonel.

=Colonia do Santissimo Sacramento= (_i.e._, Colony of the Most Holy Sacrament). A fortified maritime town of South America, in Uruguay, opposite Buenos Ayres. On August 31, 1845, it was taken by the English and French fleets.

=Colonial Corps.= Are certain regiments forming part of the regular army of the British empire, and paid for out of the imperial revenues. The native troops of India are paid from the Indian revenues.

=Colorado.= One of the United States, bounded on the north by Dakota and Nebraska, on the east by Nebraska and Kansas, on the south by New Mexico, and on the west by Utah. In 1857 an exploring party started through its territory, but were driven back by hostile Indians. The country is now, however, being rapidly settled, owing to its great fertility and the presence of auriferous deposits.

=Color-bearer.= The bearer of the colors.

=Color-Guard, The.= In the U. S. infantry, consists of the color-bearer and a guard of 7 corporals in each regiment. They must all be good soldiers. The color-guard is attached to the right centre company in the line, and its post on the field is one of honor as well as danger.

=Colorno.= A fortified castle in Italy, on the banks of the Po; it was captured by the Marquis de Maillebois, from the Austrians under the Prince of Würtemberg, in 1734.

=Colors.= A military term applied to banners or flags carried by each regiment of infantry. The banners of the cavalry are called standards. Each U. S. regiment has two colors, one national and one regimental.

=Colors.= In heraldry, the colors generally used are red, blue, black, green, and purple, which are called gules, azure, sable, vert or sinople, and purpure. Colors and metals, when engraved, are generally indicated by dots and lines: _or_, gold, by dots; _argent_, silver, is left plain; _gules_, red, is indicated by perpendicular lines from top to bottom; _azure_, blue, by horizontal lines from side to side; _sable_, black, by horizontal and perpendicular lines crossing each other; _vert_, green, by diagonal lines from right to left; and _purpure_, purple, by diagonal lines from left to right.

=Color-Sergeant.= Is the sergeant detailed to carry the regimental colors. He is usually selected for military deportment and soldierly bearing, and when carrying the colors is escorted by a guard of 7 corporals. In the British service he has a distinct rank, but in the U. S. service he ranks no higher than other sergeants.

=Colt’s Pistol.= The most celebrated of modern revolvers. Invented by an American, Col. Samuel Colt; first patented in 1835, and perfected about 1845. It has kept pace with the times, and is still one of the first of its kind.

=Columbia.= The capital of South Carolina, situated on the left bank of the Congaree River. It was taken by Gen. Sherman’s army, February 17, 1865, and was then much injured by fire.

=Columbiad Gun.= See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.

=Column.= Signifies, in military evolutions, a mass of soldiers several ranks in depth as opposed to _line_. There may be columns of brigades, of regiments, of divisions, or of companies, presenting a front of limited width, but a depth depending on the number of elements in the column. In a battalion the formation is called _open column_ when the distance between the elements of the column is such as to admit of their wheeling into line; when the distance is only a few yards it is termed _close column_; when intermediate between these two, it is “column at half distance.” Battalions are drawn up in column with either the right or left in front, or the battalions may be doubled upon their centres. To pass from column into line is to “deploy”; to pass from line to column is to “ploy.” Sometimes the name column is given to a small army, especially when engaged in active operations. In drawing up troops for action, as a general rule, the French prefer the column, the Americans and English the formation in line.

=Column, Military.= Among the Romans, a column on which was engraven a list of the forces in the Roman army, ranged by legions in their proper order. They had another kind of _military column_ called _columna bellica_, standing before the temple of Janus, at the foot of which the consul declared war by throwing a javelin towards the enemy’s country.

=Column, Triumphal.= A column erected among the ancients in honor of a hero, and decorated with various kinds of crowns, corresponding to the number of his achievements in battle. Each crown had its particular name, as _vallaris_, which was filled with spikes, in memory of his having faced a palisade; _muralis_, adorned with little turrets or battlements, for having mounted an assault; _navalis_, of prows and beaks of vessels, for having vanquished at sea; _obsidionalis_, or _graminalis_, of grass, for having raised a siege; _ovans_, of myrtle, which expressed an ovation, or minor triumph; and _triumphalis_, of laurel, for a grand triumph.

=Comanche Indians=, or =Comanches=. An extremely warlike and predatory tribe of Mexico and Texas. They have a reservation in Indian Territory with some Kiowas and Apaches. See INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Combat.= An engagement of no great magnitude, or one in which the parties engaged are not armies.

=Combustion.= The phenomena attending intense chemical actions which are accompanied by heat and light. Usually restricted to the burning of bodies by their union with oxygen. It is difficult to draw the line where combustion ends and _explosion_ begins.

=Combustion, Velocity of.= Is the space passed over by the surface of combustion in a second of time, measured in a direction perpendicular to its surface. It has been determined that the velocity of combustion of dry French war-powder is 0.48 inch, and of English powder, which American powder closely resembles, is 0.4 inch.

=Comes.= Was with the Romans an officer with territorial jurisdiction in the provinces, and especially on the frontiers.

=Comigne= (_Fr._). A shell of extreme magnitude, which takes its name from the person who originally invented it.

=Comines=, or =Commines=. A town of France, situated on the Lys, opposite the Belgian town of the same name. Near here Oliver de Clisson defeated the Flemings in 1382.

=Command.= In fortification, the height of the top of a parapet above the ground or another work.

=Command.= A body of troops, or any naval or military force or post, under the command of a particular officer. The word command, when applied to ground is synonymous with overlook; and any place thus commanded by heights within range of cannon is difficult to defend, if the enemy have been able to seize the heights.

=Command.= The 62d Article of War (new, 122) states who shall command when different corps of the army happen to join or do duty together, but as the wording of this article has been interpreted differently by different officers, it is thought best to give a decision rendered by President Fillmore on October 25, 1851, in General Orders from the War Department. The 62d Article of War provides that “If upon marches, guards, or in quarters, different corps of the army shall happen to join, or to do duty together, the officer highest in rank of the _line_ of the army, marine corps, or militia, by commission there, on duty, or in quarters, shall command the whole and give orders for what is needful to the service, unless otherwise specially directed by the President of the United States, according to the nature of the case.” The interpretation of this act has long been a subject of controversy. The difficulty arises from the vague and uncertain meaning of the words “line of the army,” which neither in the English service nor in our own have a well-defined and invariable meaning. By some they are understood to designate the regular army as distinguished from the militia; by others as meant to discriminate between officers by ordinary commissions and those by brevet; and finally, by others, to designate an officer not belonging to the staff.

The President states that “He has maturely considered the question, and finds himself compelled to differ from some for whose opinions he entertains a very high respect. His opinion is, that although these words may sometimes be used in a different sense (to be determined by the context and subject-matter), in the 62d Article of War they are used to designate those officers of the army who do not belong to the staff, in contradistinction to those who do, and that the article intended, in the case contemplated by it, to confer the command exclusively on the former.” In the discussion which took place in 1828 relating to ordinary rank and rank by brevet, the then Secretary of War (Gen. Porter) says, “Rank in the line of the army or lineal rank, as understood by the President, is applicable to the existing organization of that portion only of the army which is intended for field operations or the exertion of physical force against an enemy. It is commonly used in contradistinction to the staff,” etc. He then goes on to show that in the 62d Article it has another meaning,--House Document 58, 20th Congress, 2d session, page 13. In the same discussion, Mr. Drayton, as chairman of the Committee on Military Affairs of the House of Representatives, expresses the same opinion. He says, “Rank in the _line_ of the army is conceived to be rank in a military body specially organized for the exertion of physical force, or in other words, for combating an enemy; and an officer in such a body has a direct and paramount command over the troops which compose it. The expressions ‘rank in the line of the army,’ ‘rank in the line,’ ‘lineal rank,’ _are generally used in contradistinction to staff appointments_.” He adds, “and to rank which confers upon officers only an occasional right to command, including brevet officers,” etc. Thus we see that these gentlemen admit that these words, in their proper and usual signification, are employed to distinguish the combatant from the staff or non-combatant portions of the army.

If we look at the policy of the law, we can discover no reasons of expediency which compel us to depart from the plain and ordinary import of the terms; on the contrary, we may suppose strong reasons why it may have been deemed proper, in the case referred to by the article, to exclude officers of the staff from command. In the first place, the command of troops might frequently interfere with their appropriate duties, and thereby occasion serious embarrassment to the service. In the next place, the officers of some of the staff corps are not qualified by their habits of education for the command of troops, and although others are so qualified, it arises from the fact that (by laws passed long subsequently to the article in question) the officers of the corps to which they belong are required to be appointed from the “line of the army.” Lastly, officers of the staff corps seldom have troops of their own corps serving under their command, and if the words “officers of the line” are understood to apply to them, the effect would often be to give them command over the officers and men of all the other corps when not a man of their own was present, an anomaly always to be avoided, where it is possible to do so. Whatever doubts may be entertained on this subject in regard to the officers of other staff corps, none can exist in regard to those of the Medical Department and the Pay Department. The law of 1847 expressly excludes them from command. Now the officers of these corps are not a distinct and independent body, but are a part of the army, and as they cannot command, it follows that when on duty they must be commanded.

=Commandant.= An officer who has the command of a garrison, fort, castle, regiment, company, etc.; called also commander.

=Commander-in-Chief.= The title given to the officer who has supreme command of the land or naval forces of a nation. The President is _ex officio_ commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States.

=Commands.= In the military service there are two kinds, the _preparatory command_, such as _forward_, which indicates the movement that is to be executed, and the _command of execution_, such as MARCH, or HALT, or in the manual of arms, the part of the command which causes the execution. The tone of command is animated, distinct, and of a loudness proportioned to the number of men under instruction.

Each _preparatory command_ is pronounced in an ascending tone of voice, but always in such a manner that the _command of execution_ may be more energetic and elevated.

The _command of execution_ is pronounced in a tone firm and brief. The trumpet ought to be used for giving commands whenever it can be done to advantage.

=Commilitones.= This word had with the Romans the same significance as the English words _comrade soldiers_.

=Commissariat.= A name given to the organized system whereby armies are provided with food and daily necessaries. In the old Roman armies the duty of supplying troops was performed by the _quæstors_, who filled the place of the commissary officers of our own times. In the U. S. service this department is under charge of an officer of the rank of brigadier-general, called the commissary-general of subsistence.

=Commissary.= In general means any one to whom the power or authority of another is committed; used in military affairs in relation to officers who have charge of the subsistence of troops, musters, etc.

=Commissary of Muster.= See MUSTER.

=Commissary Sergeants.= In the U. S. service, are sergeants who are selected from the line of the army, by the Secretary of War; they must be steady and reliable men, and their duties are to assist the commissary officer in receiving, storing, preserving, issuing, selling, and accounting for the subsistence supplies at their posts, according to the regulations for the subsistence departments.

=Commission.= A writing, generally in the form of a warrant or letters-patent, authorizing the performance of duties, or exercise of powers belonging to another. Instruments bearing this title are issued by the Executive to officers in the army or navy, who, on confirmation of their appointment, are known as _commissioned_ officers. The practice of buying and selling all commissions under the rank of colonel, which formerly prevailed in the British army, was abolished in 1871.

=Commissioned.= One having a commission; furnished with a commission; empowered or authorized to act; as, a commissioned officer.

=Common Time.= In marching, the length of the direct step in common time is 28 inches, and the cadence is at the rate of 90 steps per minute.

=Communication, Line of.= A fantastical name applied by Belidor to mines with immense charges, which he proposed to use for the destruction of countermines, and which were used successfully in the attack of Schweidnitz, under Frederick II.

=Commutation.= Is the conversion of allowances, such as fuel, forage, and quarters, into their money value.

=Comorn.= A royal free town of Hungary, 48 miles from Buda. Its citadel is considered one of the strongest in Europe. Its works and intrenchments extend about 7 miles along the banks of the rivers (Waag and Danube), and it requires for its defense at least 15,000 men and 400 pieces of artillery. It has the reputation of being impregnable, and justified it in the Hungarian war, for the Austrians besieged it from October, 1848, to September, 1849, and only became masters of it at last in virtue of a capitulation.

=Compagnies de Discipline= (_Fr._). “Companies of discipline.” These companies were created by Napoleon I. in 1802; the basis of their actual organization was laid by a royal order, dated April 1, 1818. This order fixes the number of companies at 10, 6 of fusileers and 4 of pioneers, the former to be composed of soldiers of the army who were guilty of indiscipline, and the latter to be formed of men of the former who were deemed incorrigible. The number of companies is now reduced to 7, who are stationed in Algeria. There are also 4 companies similarly organized which are stationed in the French colonies.

=Compagnies d’Ordonnance= (_Fr._). The name of a corps of cavalry, which was organized in France by Charles VII. in 1439; it numbered 16 companies, and the entire strength was 9600 men. This was the first regular cavalry organized in France.

=Company= (Fr. _compagnie_). In military organization, is a body of men commanded by a captain, and forming an aliquot part of a regiment or battalion. In the British service a full company consists of about 100 men, and a regiment of infantry generally comprises 10 or 12 companies, or if there is more than 1 battalion, each has this number of companies. The captain of each company is assisted by 2 subalterns. In the U. S. army each regiment of infantry is divided into 10 companies, and each company has a captain and 2 lieutenants. The artillery and cavalry regiments are divided into 12 companies each, and the former has a captain and 4 lieutenants to each company. See ORGANIZATION.

=Company Column.= The successive improvements that have been made in fire-arms during the last hundred years have been followed by a gradual diminution of the depth of tactical formations, until to-day the “open order,” or the formation as skirmishers, is the only one adopted under the fire of the enemy. In the most recent development of the “open order” the company, composed of 250 men, is recognized as the “fighting unit,” while the battalion, composed of 4 companies, is regarded as the “tactical unit,”--that is, the smallest body of men that can be safely employed independently.

The adoption of breech-loaders has not changed the principles of strategy and grand tactics, nor has it diminished the number of lines in which armies are drawn up to give and receive battle. It has simply demonstrated the impossibility of attacking positions in battalion columns, and, as a consequence, has necessitated a division of the troops into smaller fractions, which, under fire, can be moved with the greatest rapidity and least exposure, thereby insuring the least loss of life. Hence the formation of troops in “company column” in the German and other European armies.

In the German army, the company is formed in three ranks; the tallest men are in the front rank; the most adroit and best shots are selected for the third rank, because the special duties of this rank require these qualities; the distance between ranks is 2 feet. The company is divided into divisions (or platoons). If the divisions consist of 20 or more files, they are divided into subdivisions (or half platoons); the subdivisions are again divided into sections of not less than 4, nor more than 6 files. If the company be of full strength, it will have a front of 72 files; each division will contain 36 files; each subdivision 18 files; and each section 6 files. The battalion consists of 4 companies.

The “company column” is formed in the following manner: The battalion being in line, at the command to “form company column,” the third rank of each even division of the right wing faces about, marches 12 paces to the rear, halts, and faces to the front; the first and second ranks of the uneven divisions face to the left, and place themselves 6 paces in rear of the first and second ranks of the even divisions; the third rank of the uneven subdivisions faces to the left, and, filing in front of the third rank of the even division, forms with it a third division in double rank. The movement is executed in the uncadenced step. The column when formed consists practically of 3 platoons in double rank. In the left wing the movement is similarly executed; the even subdivisions ploying in rear of the uneven subdivisions. The third division of each column is called the “shooting division.”

In the French army the company is formed in 2 ranks, and is normally divided into 4 sections, the first two of which constitute the first platoon, the last two the second platoon. The “company column” is always formed on the second section from the right, which stands fast; the distance between sections is 6 paces.

The “company column” in Italy, Austria, and Russia, as in France, varies very slightly from the German.