Part 148
=Wall-piece.= A small cannon (or, in ancient times, an arquebuse) mounted on a swivel, on the wall of a fortress, for the purpose of being fired at short range on assailants in the ditch or on the covert way. There are distinct evidences that the great wall of China was originally constructed for the reception of wall-pieces.
=Wandewash.= A town on the Coromandel coast, about 30 miles south of Madras. In 1739, when M. de Lally, the French governor in the East Indies, threatened with utter subjection the English settlements in the Carnatic, he was opposed most gallantly by Col. Coote, upon the Coromandel coast. Coote reduced the French settlements of Masulipatam and Conjeveram, and made a vigorous attack upon Wandewash, which he captured. Lally, in the autumn of 1739, made a bold attempt to regain possession of the disputed settlement, but his force was utterly broken; he lost 600 men, and was happy to save the wreck of his army by abandoning his camp to the victor.
=Wapinschaw.= A periodical gathering of the people, instituted by various Scots statutes, for the purpose of exhibiting their arms, these statutes directing each individual to be armed on a scale proportionate to his property. There are numerous Scots acts of the 15th and 16th centuries regulating the subject of wapinschaws. In the time of war or rebellion, proclamations were issued charging all sheriffs and magistrates of burghs to direct the attendants of the respective wapinschawings to join the king’s host. During the reign of the later Stuarts, attendance on the wapinschaws was enforced with considerable strictness; and in addition to military exercises, sports and pastimes were carried on by authority at these gatherings. The Covenanters, in consequence of this sport being of a kind disapproved by them, did what they could to discourage attendance on the wapinschaws.
=War.= A contest between nations or states, carried on by force, either for defense or for revenging insults and redressing wrongs, for the extension of commerce or acquisition of territory, or for obtaining and establishing the superiority and dominion of one over the other. It is the armed conflicts of sovereign powers, declared and open hostilities. Wars are various in their occasions and objects; but in all cases, the aim of each contending party is to weaken and overthrow the opposing party. At one time, the art of war was supposed to consist very much in wearing out the enemy by a slow process of exhaustion, and thus wars were much protracted. But more recently, the greatest generals have adopted the method of rather endeavoring to strike sudden and terrible blows, by which the war is sooner brought to a termination, and this method, although it may often have been adopted without regard to considerations of humanity, is, in all probability, less productive of suffering to mankind than the other. Among rude nations, wars are conducted by tumultuary hosts, suddenly congregated, and in general, either after defeat or victory, soon dispersed. But the wars of the more civilized and powerful nations have long been conducted by armies carefully trained and disciplined; and in the case of maritime powers, by means of fleets at sea as well as of armies on land. Preparation for war among such nations requires not only the forming and training of the army, but vast provision in many various ways of the means and _matériel_ of war. Much science and skill are also applied to the conduct of military operations, and the principles upon which they ought to be conducted have been carefully investigated and theories tested by an examination of the history of the most important campaigns. See STRATEGY and TACTICS.
Wars are classified in various ways. They are classified from the nature of the military operations employed in their prosecution; into _offensive_ or _defensive_ wars: from the end to be attained; into wars of _conquest_, wars of _independence_, etc.: from the causes producing the war; into wars of _insurrection_, _religious_ wars, etc.: from the general locality in which they are waged; into _American_, _African_, _European_, etc. Other classifications than these are also used, being based on the nature and object of the war. War is both a _science_ and _an art_. All investigations which have for their object the determination of the great principles which should govern a general in conducting his military operations; all analyses which are made to show the important and essential features which characterize a campaign or battle, and comparisons made with other campaigns and battles; all deductions and formations of rules which are to be used in military operations; all these belong to the _science_ of war. The practical application of these great principles and rules belongs to the _art_ of war. In the science of war as well as in the other physical sciences, the facts must precede theory; and although the number of known facts is steadily increasing, the number of general principles upon which the theories of the science are based is constant, if not decreasing. These general principles are deduced by a close and critical examination of such methods of waging war as have been adopted by those great generals who are known as eminent in their profession. It is evident, then, that an intimate connection exists between military history and the science of war. Napoleon said, “Alexander made eight campaigns; Hannibal, seventeen,--one in Spain, fifteen in Italy, and one in Africa; Cæsar, thirteen, of which eight were against the Gauls and five against the legions of Pompey; Gustavus Adolphus, three; Turenne, eighteen; Prince Eugène of Savoy, thirteen; Frederick, eleven, in Bohemia, Silesia, and on the banks of the Elbe. The history of these eighty-four campaigns, written with care, would be a complete treatise on the art of war. From this source, the principles which ought to be followed, in offensive as well as defensive warfare, could at once be obtained.” To these campaigns are to be added the battles and campaigns of Napoleon. Jomini, an eminent writer on military art, says, “Correct theories, founded upon right principles, sustained by actual events of war, and added to accurate military history, will form a true school of instruction for generals.” If these means do not produce great men, they will at least produce generals of sufficient skill to take rank next after the “natural masters of the art of war.” The sources of all treatises on the “Art and Science of War,” are to be found in the military histories narrating the events and results of the battles and campaigns just enumerated.
In the progress of society, certain _usages of war_ have come to be generally recognized. These, of course, have varied at different times, and in different parts of the world, according to the state of civilization and the prevalent feelings of the time. They are also subject to modification from causes less general. But the changes which have taken place in them during the lapse of ages have been in general favorable to the interests of humanity. Prisoners of war are no longer put to death, nor are they reduced to slavery, as was once very frequently the case, but their treatment has become generally more and more mild and kind. It is a well-understood rule, however, that a prisoner of war obtaining his liberty by exchange or otherwise, with the condition of not serving again during a fixed period against the same power, forfeits his life, if he is found so serving, and is again taken prisoner. Among all civilized nations, quarter is granted in battle whenever it is sought; and there are certain usages universally prevalent with regard to the capitulation of fortified places, and of bodies of troops hopelessly hemmed in by superior forces, etc.
=War, Articles of.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR.
=War, Auxiliary.= Is that in which a nation succors its neighbors, either in consequence of alliances or engagements entered into with them; or sometimes to prevent their falling under the power of an ambitious prince.
=War, Civil.= A war between different sections or parties of the same country or nation.
=War, Council of.= See COUNCIL OF WAR.
=War, Defensive.= Is a war undertaken to repel invasion or the attacks of an enemy. Defensive war may be divided into three kinds. It is either a war sustained by a nation, which is suddenly attacked by another who is superior in troops and in means; or a nation makes this sort of war by choice on one side of its frontiers, while it carries on offensive war elsewhere; or it is a war become defensive by the loss of a battle.
=War Department.= See DEPARTMENT OF WAR.
=War Establishment.= See ESTABLISHMENT.
=War, Game of.= See STRATEGOS.
=War, Holy.= A crusade; a war undertaken to deliver the Holy Land, or Judea, from infidels. See CRUSADE.
=War Minister.= See MINISTER, and SECRETARY OF WAR.
=War, Offensive.= See OFFENSIVE WAR.
=War Office.= The immediate office of the British secretary of state for war, and the centre on which pivots the entire administration of the army. It is subdivided into a number of departments, each under a chief officer, who is at the head of that section of the labor, and is directly responsible to the secretary of state. The last named high officer is aided by two under-secretaries of state, an assistant under-secretary, and a military assistant. Under these and the heads of departments there are about 450 clerks, with 50 messengers, etc.
=War of Succession.= See SUCCESSION WARS.
=War, Religious.= Is a war maintained in a state on account of religion, one of the parties refusing to tolerate the other.
=Warasdins.= A kind of Sclavonian soldiers, clothed like the Turks, with a sugar-loaf bonnet instead of a hat.
=War-beat=, or =War-beaten=. Worn down in service.
=Warburg= (Northern Germany). Here the French were defeated by the Duke of Brunswick and the allies, July 31, 1760.
=War-cry.= A cry or signal used in war. For mutual recognition and encouragement in battle, war-cries have always been common, each rude nation or tribe having its own. The ancient war-cry of the English was _Saint George!_ that of the Spaniards, _San Jago!_ and that of the French, _Montjoie Saint-Denis!_ that of the dukes of Burgundy, _Montjoie Saint-André!_ and that of the dukes of Bourbon, _Montjoie Notre-Dame!_. In the feuds of the Middle Ages, each party, or the retainers of each noble family, had a distinctive war-cry. Sometimes the war-cry was the name of the family. Thus, in Scotland, the retainers of the noble houses of Douglas and of Home rushed into battle with the cry of _A Douglas! a Douglas!_ or _A Home! a Home!_ The French armies under Napoleon were accustomed to charge with shouts of _Vive l’Empereur!_
=Ward.= Watch, the act of guarding. A garrison or party stationed for defense of any place; a position of defense or guard made by a weapon in fencing. Also, to guard; to watch; to defend; to parry an attack.
=Ward-Burton Rifle.= See MAGAZINE GUNS.
=War-dance.= A dance among savages preliminary to going to war. Among the North American Indians, it is begun by some distinguished chief, and whoever joins in it thereby enlists as one of the party engaged in a warlike excursion. The war-dance is also indulged in upon the close of any successful expedition, as well as for pleasure.
=Warden.= An officer appointed for the naval or military protection of some particular district of country. In order to keep the districts of England adjoining to Scotland and Wales in an attitude of defense, great officers, called _lord wardens_ of the marches, were appointed, to whom the duty of protecting the frontier was committed. From this source originated the name _ward_, applied to the subdivisions of the counties of Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Durham,--a term afterwards extended to divisions of a city, town, or burgh adopted for municipal purposes. The custodier of Dover Castle was created by William the Conqueror warden of the Cinque Ports, and guardian of the adjacent coast, an office comprising extensive jurisdiction, civil, naval, and military, the greater part of which was taken away by 18 and 19 Vict., c. 48.
=Warder.= A truncheon, or staff of command, carried by a king or any commander-in-chief, the throwing down of which seems to have been a solemn act of prohibition to stay proceedings.
=Warfare.= Military service; military life; war; hostilities; contest carried on by enemies.
=Warfarer.= One engaged in warfare; a military man; a soldier.
=War-field.= A field of war or battle.
=War-horse.= A horse used in war; the horse of a cavalry soldier; especially, a strong, powerful, spirited horse for military service; a charger.
=Warlike.= Fit for war; disposed for war; as, a warlike state. Belonging or relating to war; military; martial.
=Warlike Virtues.= Are love of our country, courage, valor, prudence, intrepidity, temperance, disinterestedness, obedience, wisdom, vigilance, and patience. In the celebration of the anniversary of the destruction of the Bastile, which took place at Paris July 14, 1789, the French characterized these eleven virtues by the following emblems: a pelican, a lion, a horse, a stag, a wolf, an elephant, a dog, a yoked ox, an owl, a cock, and a camel.
=Warned.= Admonished of some duty to be performed at a given time or place. Thus, officers and soldiers are warned for guard, etc.
=War-paint.= Paint put on the face and other parts of the body by savages, as a token of going to war.
=War-path.= The route taken by a party going on a warlike expedition,--usually applied to hostile Indians.
=War-proof.= Valor tried by war.
=Warrant.= A certificate of rank issued by commissioned officers. See OFFICERS, WARRANT-.
=Warrant.= In Great Britain, is a royal ordinance on any matter relating to the army.
=Warrington.= A town of England, in Lancashire, on the river Mersey, 17 miles east by south from Liverpool. As the best passage of the river, it was the scene of frequent conflicts during the civil war in the reign of Charles I. In 1643 the town was twice taken by storm by the Parliamentary forces. In 1648 the Scottish army made a stand here, but were defeated by Gen. Lambert, who also here repulsed the troops under Charles II. on his way to Worcester in 1651; and in 1745 the centre arches of the bridge, over the Mersey, were broken down to impede the progress of the Highlanders under the Pretender.
=Warrior.= A man engaged in war or military life; a soldier; a man noted for valor and prowess; a champion.
=Warsaw.= Formerly the capital of Poland, now capital of the Russian, or rather Russianized, government of Warsaw, on the left bank of the Vistula, about 300 miles east of Berlin by railway. The Poles were defeated in a three days’ battle by the Swedes, July 28-30, 1656. An alliance was formed here, between Austria and Poland against Turkey, in pursuance of which John Sobieski assisted in raising the siege of Vienna (see VIENNA), March 31, 1683. Warsaw surrendered to Charles XII., 1703. A treaty was concluded here between Russia and Poland, February 24, 1768. The Russians, placed here in 1794, were expelled by the citizens with the loss of 2000 killed and 500 wounded, and 30 pieces of cannon, April 17, 1794; the Poles were defeated, by the Russians at Maciejovice, near Warsaw, October 4, 1794. The king of Prussia besieged Warsaw, July, 1794; was compelled to raise the siege in September; but it was taken by the Russians, November, 1794. On November 4, 1794, the Russian general Suwarrow, after the siege and destruction of Warsaw, cruelly butchered 30,000 Poles, of all ages and conditions, in cold blood. In August, 1807, Warsaw was constituted a duchy, and annexed to the house of Saxony. In 1813 the duchy was overrun by the Russians, and Warsaw made the residence of a Russian viceroy. A Polish revolution commenced at Warsaw, November 29, 1830. The subsequent principal events in the history of this city being intimately connected with that of the state of which it was the capital, are narrated in the article Poland.
=War-scot.= A contribution for the supply of arms and armor, in the time of the Saxons.
=War-song.= A song exciting to war; especially, among the American Indians, a song at the war-dance, full of incitements to military ardor.
=War-traitor.= A person who betrays to the enemy anything concerning the condition, safety, operation, or plans of the troops holding or occupying a place. The punishment is usually death.
=War-whoop.= The cry or shout uttered by Indians in war.
=Warwickshire.= A county occupying almost the very heart of England, and the centre and highest point of the great district of midland table-land. At the time of the Roman invasion the county was inhabited partly by the Cornavii, and partly by the Wigantes, or Wiccii. Under the Romans it formed part of the province of Flavia Cæsariensis. Under the Saxons, the county was included in the kingdom of Mercia, whose rulers occasionally resided at Warwick, Tamworth, and Kingsbury. After the Conquest, the powerful families, the Newburghs, Beauchamps, and Nevilles, who held the earldom of Warwick, involved the county in all the great civil wars recorded in English history. In the troubles in Henry III.’s reign, Kenilworth stood a long siege by the royal forces; in the wars of the Roses, the city of Coventry warmly embraced the Lancastrian, and the town of Warwick the Yorkist cause; and in the war between Charles I. and his Parliament, Warwickshire was torn by the contending factions, who made special head in the neighborhood of Birmingham. Charles slept at Aston Hall, near that town, on his march through Warwickshire in 1642, and two days afterwards the first great battle of the civil war was fought on the borders of the county at Edge Hill. Swords and other weapons, used in the battle, are still occasionally plowed up. Maxstoke Castle (inhabited) is externally a remarkably perfect specimen of the fortified residences of the period of the 14th century.
=Warwolf.= In ancient military history, an engine for throwing stones and other great masses.
=War-worn.= Worn with military service; as, a war-worn soldier.
=Washington City.= The seat of the government of the United States of America, is in the District of Columbia, on the left bank of the Potomac River, between Anacostia River and Rock Creek, which separates it from Georgetown, 39 miles southwest from Baltimore, and 120 miles northeast from Richmond. This city was commenced in 1793, but operations were subsequently suspended in consequence of the war, and much that had been done was destroyed by the British in 1814, so that the whole edifice was recommenced in 1815, and was not entirely finished till 1828. During the civil war (1861-65), from its exposed position, it was threatened with capture, and was surrounded with fortifications, and converted into an intrenched camp.
=Washington Territory.= A Territory of the United States; bounded north by British Columbia, east by the Territory of Idaho, south by the Columbia River, which separates it from Oregon, and west by the Pacific Ocean. This Territory was discovered by Juan de Fuca, a Greek, in 1592; visited by a Spanish navigator in 1775, and three years after by Capt. Cook. In 1787, Berkeley, an Englishman, re-discovered the Strait of Fuca, which had been missed by the others. Settlements were made in this Territory by the Hudson Bay Company in 1828; in 1845, American settlers entered the Territory, then a part of Oregon. Wars with the Indians, in 1855 and 1858, retarded immigration, but in the latter year, 15,000 persons were attracted by gold discoveries. This Territory was organized in 1853.
=Wat Tyler’s Insurrection.= See TYLER’S INSURRECTION.
=Watch.= The non-commissioned officers and men on board of transports are divided into three watches, one of which is constantly to be on deck, with at least one subaltern officer in charge of the watch.
=Watch and Ward.= The charge or care of certain officers to keep a watch by night and a guard by day in towns, cities, and other districts, for the preservation of the public peace.
=Watch-tower.= A tower on which a sentinel is placed to watch for enemies or the approach of danger.
=Watch-word.= See PAROLE.
=Water.= In calculating the quantity of water required per man for drinking and cooking, it may be put down at 6 pints in temperate, and 8 pints in tropical climates. A similar amount will just allow men to wash their bodies. In stationary camps, however, the minimum daily allowance per man should be 5 gallons for all purposes, washing clothes included. Horses not doing work will thrive well on 6 gallons a day, but require from 8 to 12 when at work, according to their condition and the nature of the work. A couple of gallons extra should, under all circumstances, be allowed for washing them. Oxen require about 6 or 7 gallons daily.
In selecting positions, particularly those that are likely to be of a permanent character, a careful analysis of the water should be made by a medical man. A fair opinion can be formed as to whether it is wholesome or not, by the appearance of the inhabitants, and by tasting the water oneself. “It should be transparent, colorless, without odor, and tasteless; well aërated, cool, and pleasant to drink; it must have no deposit; vegetables should be easily cooked in it.” Shallow water is always to be examined with suspicion. The water of some rivers at certain seasons is thick and muddy; in some, it is always so. To examine it without the aid of chemical tests, fill a long tumbler or other glass vessel with it. If the water has been drawn in a bucket or other vessel, shake it up and stir it well before pouring it into the tumbler or glass cylinder; let it stand for a day, or as many hours as possible; draw off the water without disturbing the sediment, which should then be carefully examined through a microscope. Vegetable decompositions and iron are the chief substances that give color to water. When water is very bad it should be boiled before drinking; after boiling it should be placed in shallow vessels, and poured from a height from one into another. Very muddy water when placed in barrels or other vessels, can be cleaned by immersing the hand containing a lump of alum in it, and moving it about for a few seconds. All the coloring matter will sink to the bottom. The longer the time that elapses between the operation and drinking, the better. Growing vegetable substances may not be always injurious, but dead vegetable matter is so without doubt. At the maximum density (39.8° Fahr.), the barometer being at 30 inches, a gallon of distilled water weighs 8.33888 avoirdupois pounds or 58,373 grains.
=Water-battery.= One nearly on a level with the water.
=Water-bucket.= See IMPLEMENTS.
=Water-budget.= A heraldic bearing, in the form of a yoke with two pouches of leather appended to it, originally intended to represent the bags used by the Crusaders to convey water across the desert, which were slung on a pole, and carried across the shoulders. The Trusbuts, barons of Wartre in Holderness, bore _Trois boutz d’eau_, “_three water-budgets_,” symbolizing at once their family name and baronial estate; and by the marriage of the heiress, similar arms came to be assumed by the family of De Ros, who bear gules, three water-budgets argent.
=Water-deck.= A covering of painted canvas for the saddle, bridle, and the like, of a dragoon’s horse.