Part 108

=Punishment, Military.= In a military sense, is the execution of a sentence pronounced by a court-martial upon any delinquent. The Romans punished crimes committed by the soldiery with the utmost rigor. On the occurrence of a mutiny, every tenth, twentieth, or hundredth man was sometimes chosen by lot, but generally only the ringleaders were selected for punishment. Deserters and seditious persons were frequently, after being scourged, sold for slaves; and occasionally the offender was made to lose his right hand, or was bled nearly to death. Among the nations of Western Europe, the punishments for military offenses were, till lately, no less severe than they were among the Romans. Besides the infliction of a certain number of lashes with cords, soldiers convicted of theft, marauding, or any other breach of discipline which was not punishable with death, were sentenced to run the gantlope. (See GANTLOPE.) In Russia the knout was extensively used. (See KNOUT.) It is often necessary to punish to maintain discipline, and the rules and articles of war provide ample means of punishment, but not sufficient rewards and guards against errors of judgment. In the French army degrading punishments are illegal, but soldiers may be confined to quarters or deprived of the liberty of leaving the garrison; confined in the guard-room, in prison, or in dungeon; required to walk or to perform hard labor; and officers may be subjected to simple or rigorous arrests. Every officer who inflicts a punishment, must account for it to his superior, who approves or disapproves, confirms, augments, or diminishes it. If an inferior is confined to the guard-room, he cannot be liberated except upon application to a superior. Any officer who has been subjected to punishment, must, when relieved, make a visit to him who ordered it. The French code has, in a word, been careful to provide for both the security of its citizens and the strength of authority. The punishments established by law or custom for U. S. soldiers by sentence of court-martial, are embodied in the Articles of War. (See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR.) It is regarded as inhuman to punish by solitary confinement, or confinement on bread and water exceeding fourteen days at a time, or for more than eighty-four days in a year, at intervals of fourteen days.

=Punitz.= A town of Prussia in the province of Posen. A battle was fought here in 1706, between the Saxons and the Swedes, in which the latter were victorious.

=Punjab=, or =Five Rivers=. An extensive river of Hindostan, situated chiefly in the province of Lahore, but including Moultan, and comprising the country traversed by the “five great waters,” or rivers, of which the Indus is the most westerly, and the Sutlej the most easterly. This region was traversed by Alexander the Great in 327 B.C.; and again by Tamerlane in 1398. The wars with the Sikhs began here on March 29, 1849, when the Punjab was annexed to the British possessions in India.

=Punkah.= A swinging fan used in the hot districts of India.

=Purchasing.= Any person purchasing from any soldier his arms, uniform, clothing, or any part thereof, may be punished by any civil court having cognizance of the same, by fine in any sum not exceeding $300, or by imprisonment not exceeding one year.--_Act of March 16, 1802._

=Purpure.= In heraldry, the color purple, expressed in engravings by lines in bend sinister. It is of unfrequent occurrence in British heraldry.

=Pursuit.= The act of following or going after; a following with haste, either for sport or hostility; as, the pursuit of an enemy.

=Pursuivant.= The third and lowest order of heraldic officers. The office was instituted as a novitiate, or state of probation, through which the offices of herald and king-at-arms were ordinarily to be attained, though it has been held that a herald or king-at-arms may be made _per saltum_. For the present titles of the several British pursuivants, see HERALD. In ancient times any great nobleman might institute his own pursuivant with his own hands and by his single authority. The dukes of Norfolk had a pursuivant called _Blanch-lyon_, from the white lion in their arms; the pursuivant of the dukes of Northumberland was styled _Espérance_ from the Percy motto, and Richard Nevil, earl of Salisbury, had a pursuivant called _Egle vert_.

=Purveyor.= A person employed to make purchases, or to provide food, medicines, and necessaries for the sick.

=Push.= To press against with force; to drive or impel by pressure; as, to push back an enemy.

=Push.= An assault or attack; a forcible onset; a vigorous effort.

=Put to the Sword, To.= To kill with the sword; to slay.

=Puteoli= (the modern _Puzzuoli_). A celebrated seaport town of Campania, was situated on the eastern shore of the Gulf of Baiæ. A colony from the neighboring Greek city of Cumæ founded it in 521 B.C., under the name of Dicæarchia. In the second Punic war the Romans fortified it, and changed its name into that of Puteoli. It was destroyed by Alaric in 410, by Genseric in 455, and also by Totila in 545, but was on each occasion speedily rebuilt. In the 9th century the Lombard dukes of Benevento reduced it.

=Putteeala.= A town of British India, capital of a dependent native state of the same name, in Sirhind, on the Kosilla, 1023 miles northwest of Calcutta. It was taken possession of by the British in 1809, but the rajah retains the sovereignty, on condition of furnishing a certain number of troops in case of war to the British government.

=Puzzuoli=, or =Pozzuoli=. See PUTEOLI.

=Pydna= (now _Kitron_). A town of Macedonia, in the district Pieria, was situated at a small distance west of the Thermaic Gulf, on which it had a harbor. It was originally a Greek colony, but was subdued by the Macedonian kings, from whom, however, it frequently revolted. Toward the end of the Peloponnesian war it was taken after a long siege by Archelaus. It again revolted from the Macedonians, and was subdued by Philip, who enlarged and fortified the place. It was here that Olympias sustained a long siege against Cassander, 317-16 B.C. It is especially memorable on account of the victory gained under its walls by Æmilius Paulus over Perseus, the last king of Macedonia, 168 B.C.

=Pylos=, or =Pilus=. In the southwest of Messenia, was situated at the foot of Mount Ægaleos on a promontory at the northern entrance of the basin, now called the Bay of Navarino, the largest and safest harbor of Greece. In the second Messenian war the inhabitants of Pylos offered a long and brave resistance to the Spartans; but after the capture of Ira, they were obliged to quit their native country with the rest of the Messenians. It again became memorable in the Peloponnesian war, when the Athenians under Demosthenes built a fort on the promontory Coryphasium, a little south of the ancient city, and just within the northern entrance of the harbor (425 B.C.). The attempts of the Spartans to dislodge the Athenians proved unavailing; and the capture by Cleon of the Spartans, who had landed in the island of Sphacteria, was one of the most important events in the whole war.

=Pyramids, Battle of the.= So called from having taken place close to the large pyramids in the plain of Mummies, at Waardam, within a few miles of Grand Cairo. A previous engagement had been fought on July 15, 1799, between the Mamelukes under Murad Bey and the French army, commanded by Bonaparte in person. On July 21, 1799, the second battle, called the “battle of the Pyramids,” was fought, when Bonaparte defeated the Mamelukes under Murad Bey and thus subdued Lower Egypt.

=Pyrenees, Battle of the.= The Pyrenees are a chain of mountains which separate Spain from France, and are nearly 75 miles broad. Towards the close of the Peninsular war, in 1813, these mountains were the scene of many severe conflicts between the British troops under the Duke of Wellington and the French forces under Marshal Soult. After the defeat of Joseph Bonaparte at Vittoria, Soult took the command of the French armies as _lieutenant de l’empereur_; and after addressing the beaten soldiery in language that proved fatally unprophetic, he hastened to relieve the beleaguered fortresses, and the result was “the battles of the Pyrenees.” Pampeluna, Roncesvalles, Maya, Orthez, etc., were the seats of the principal struggles. For nine days the armies had been in each other’s presence; and in severe operations and desperate fighting these days were unexampled. The allied casualties exceeded 7000 men,--and those of the French might be safely set down at 15,000.

=Pyrgi.= Movable towers, used by the Greeks in scaling the walls of besieged towns. They were driven forward upon wheels, and were divided into different stories, capable of carrying a great number of soldiers and military engines.

=Pyroboli.= Fireballs, used both by the Greeks and Romans. They seem to have been the very same as the malleoli.

=Pyrometer.= An instrument for determining the pressure of fired gunpowder by the registered compression of oil,--invented by Dr. W. E. Woodbridge, and used by him and Maj. Mordecai (U. S. Ordnance Department) in experiments at Washington Arsenal, 1854-55. It consists of a small hollow steel cylinder filled with oil and a piston which is pressed inwards upon the oil by the powder gases. The piston has a small stem projecting inwards, which is guided by a tube in the bottom of the cylinder. A steel point presses against the stem and scratches a line upon it, when the piston is moved. The pyrometer is received by a hollow screw-plug placed in the side of the gun at the point where the pressure is to be taken. This instrument is probably the most accurate and delicate one ever invented for the purpose. In the experiments it recorded certain vibrations in the column of gases, which have been generally neglected by theorists on the subject, but which are of great importance to the life of the gun. It seems unfortunate that an instrument which promised so much should have been allowed to fall into disuse, if not almost oblivion.

=Pyrotechny.= Is the art of preparing ammunition and fireworks for military and ornamental purposes. (See AMMUNITION.) Military fireworks comprise preparations for the service of _cannon ammunition_, and for _signal_, _light_, _incendiary_, and _defensive_ and _offensive_ purposes. The term composition is applied to all mechanical mixtures which, by combustion, produce the effects sought to be attained in pyrotechny. The preparations for the service of ammunition are _slow-match_, _quick-match_, _port-fires_, _friction-tubes_, and _fuzes_.

_Slow-match_ is used to preserve fire. It may be made of hemp or cotton rope; if made of hemp, the rope is saturated with acetate of lead, or the lye of wood-ashes; if made of cotton, it is only necessary that the strands be well twisted. Slow-match burns from 4 to 5 inches in an hour.

_Quick-match_ is made of cotton-yarn (candle-wick) saturated with a composition of mealed powder and gummed spirits; after saturation, the yarn is wound on a reel, sprinkled (dredged) with mealed powder and left to dry. It is used to communicate fire, and burns at the rate of one yard in thirteen seconds. The rate of burning may be much increased by inclosing it in a thin paper tube called a _leader_.

_Port-fire_ is a paper case containing a composition, the flame of which is capable of quickly igniting primers, quick-match, etc. A port-fire is about 22 inches long, and burns with an intense flame for ten minutes.

_Friction-tube_ is at present the principal preparation for firing cannon; it has the advantage of portability and certainty of fire. It is composed of two brass tubes soldered at right angles. The upper, or short tube contains a charge of friction-powder, and the _roughed_ extremity of a wire loop, the long tube is filled with rifle-powder, and is inserted in the vent of the piece. When the extremity of the loop is violently pulled by means of a lanyard, through its hole in the long tube, sufficient heat is generated to ignite the friction-powder which surrounds it, and this communicates with the grained powder in the long tube. The charge of grained powder has sufficient force to pass through the longest vent, and penetrate several thicknesses of cartridge-cloth.

_Fuzes._--See FUZE.

_Fireworks for Signals._--The preparations for signals are _rockets_ and _blue-lights_.

_Signal-Rockets._--The principal parts of a signal-rocket are the _case_, the _composition_, the _pot_, the _decorations_, and the _stick_. The _case_ is made by rolling stout paper around a former. The vent is formed by choking one end of the case.

_Composition._--A variety of compositions are employed for signal-rockets; a mixture of nitre 12 parts, sulphur 2 parts, charcoal 2 parts, is frequently used. The _pot_ is formed of a paper cylinder, slipped over and pasted to the top of the case; it is surmounted with a paper cone, filled with tow. The object of the pot is to contain the decorations which are scattered through the air by the explosion which takes place when the rocket reaches the summit of its trajectory; the explosion is produced by a small charge of mealed powder. The _decorations_ of rockets are _stars_, _serpents_, _marrons_, _gold rain_, _rain of fire_, etc.

_Stars._--The compositions for stars are, for _white_: nitre 7 parts, sulphur 3 parts, mealed powder 2 parts; for _red_: chlorate of potassa 7 parts, sulphur 4 parts, lampblack 1 part, nitrate of strontia 12 parts; _blue_: chlorate of potassa 3 parts, sulphur 1 part, ammoniacal sulphate of copper 1 part; _yellow_: chlorate of potassa 4 parts, sulphur 2 parts, sulphate of strontia 1 part, bicarbonate of soda 1 part.

_Serpents._--The case of a serpent is similar to that of a rocket; the composition is driven in, and the top is closed with moist plaster of Paris. The composition is nitre 3 parts, sulphur 3 parts, mealed powder 16 parts, charcoal ¹⁄₂ part.

_Marrons._--Marrons are small paper shells, or cubes, filled with grained powder, and primed with a short piece of quick-match.

_Stick._--The stick is a tapering piece of pine, about nine times the length of the case.

_Blue Light._--A very brilliant bluish light may be made of the following ingredients, viz.: nitre 14 parts, sulphur 3.7 parts, realgar 1 part, mealed powder 1 part; the brilliancy depends on the purity and thorough incorporation of the ingredients.

_Incendiary Fireworks._--Incendiary preparations are _fire-stone_, _carcasses_, _incendiary-match_, and _hot shot_.

_Fire-stone_ is a composition that burns slowly, but intensely; it is placed in a shell, along with the bursting charge, for the purpose of setting fire to ships, buildings, etc. It is composed of nitre 10 parts, sulphur 4 parts, antimony 1 part, rosin 3 parts.

_Carcass._--A common shell may be loaded as a carcass by placing the bursting charge at the bottom of the cavity, and covering it with carcass composition, driven in until the shell is nearly full, and then inserting four or five strands of quick-match. This projectile, after burning as a carcass, explodes as a shell. See CARCASS.

_Incendiary-match._--Is made by boiling slow-match in a saturated solution of nitre, drying it, cutting it into pieces, and plunging it into melted fire-stone. It is principally used in loaded shells.

_Hot Shot._--See HOT SHOT.

_Fireworks for Light._--The preparations for producing light are _fire-balls_, _light-balls_, _tarred-links_, _pitched-fascines_, and _torches_.

_Fire-ball._--A fire-ball is an oval-shaped canvas sack filled with combustible composition. It is intended to be thrown from a mortar to light up the works of an enemy, and is loaded with a shell to prevent it from being approached and extinguished. The composition for a fire-ball consists of nitre 8 parts, sulphur 2 parts, antimony 1 part. The bottom of the sack is protected from the force of the charge by an iron cup called a culob, and the whole is covered and strengthened with a net-work of spun-yarn or wire, and then overlaid with a composition of pitch, rosin, etc.

_Light-ball._--These are made in the same manner as fire-balls, the shell being omitted.

_Tarred-links._--Tarred links are used for lighting up a rampart, defile, etc., or for incendiary purposes. They consist of coils of soft rope placed on top of each other, and loosely tied together; they are immersed in a composition of 20 parts of pitch, and one of tallow; when dry, they are plunged into a composition of equal parts of pitch and rosin, and rolled in tow or sawdust.

_Pitched-fascines._--Fagots of vine twigs or other very combustible wood, about 20 inches long and 4 inches in diameter, tied in three places with iron wire. They may be treated in the same manner and used for the same purposes as tarred-links.

_Torches._--A torch is a ball of rope impregnated with an inflammable composition, and is fastened to the end of a stick, which is carried in the hand.

_Offensive and Defensive Fireworks._--The principal preparations of this class, employed in modern warfare, are _bags of powder_ and _light-barrels_.

_Bags of Powder._--Bags or cases of powder may be used to blow down gates, stockades, or form breaches in thin walls. The petard was formerly employed for these purposes, but it is now generally thrown aside. The effect of the explosion may be much increased by making three sides of the bag of leather, and the fourth of canvas, which should rest against the object.

_Light-barrel._--A light barrel is a common powder barrel pierced with numerous holes, and filled with shavings that have been soaked in a composition of pitch and rosin; it serves to light up a breach, or the bottom of a ditch.

_Fireworks._--Ornamental fireworks are divided into fixed pieces, movable pieces, decorative pieces, and preparations for communicating fire from one part of a piece to another. The different effects are produced by modifying the proportions of the ingredients of the burning composition, so as to quicken or retard combustion, or by introducing substances that give color and brilliancy to the flame. The fixed pieces are _lances_, _petards_, _gerbes_, _flames_, etc.

_Lances._--These are small paper tubes filled with a composition which emits a brilliant light in burning. See LANCE A FEU.

_Petard._--Petards are small paper cartridges filled with powder.

_Gerbe._--Gerbes are strong paper tubes or cases filled with a burning composition. The ends are tamped with moist plaster of Paris or clay. The movable pieces are _sky-rockets_, _tourbillions_, _Saxons_, _jets_, _Roman candles_, _paper shells_, etc.

_Sky-rocket._--Sky-rockets are the same as the signal-rockets before described, except that the composition is arranged to give out a more brilliant train of fire. Composition: 122 parts mealed powder, 80 parts nitre, 40 parts sulphur, and 40 parts cast-iron filings.

_Tourbillion._--The tourbillion is a case filled with sky-rocket composition, and which moves with an upward spiral motion.

_Saxon._--The Saxon is similar to the tourbillion; it has the appearance of a revolving sun.

_Jets._--Jets are rocket-cases filled with a burning composition; they are attached to the circumference of a wheel, or the end of a movable arm, to set it in motion.

_Roman candles._--A Roman candle is a strong paper tube containing stars, which are successively thrown out by a small charge of powder placed under each star. A slow-burning composition is placed over each star to prevent its taking fire at once.

_Paper Shell._--This piece is a paper shell filled with decorative pieces, and fired from a common mortar. It contains a small bursting charge of powder, and has a fuze regulated to ignite it when the shell reaches the summit of its trajectory.

_Decorative Pieces._--Decorative pieces are _stars_, _serpents_, _marrons_, etc., described under the head of ROCKETS.

_Preparations for communicating fire_ from one piece to another are _quick-match_, _leaders, ort-fires_, and _mortar-fuzes_. The leader is a thin paper tube containing a strand of quick-match. See QUICK-MATCH, etc.

=Pyroxyline=, or =Pyroxyle=. Gun-cotton (which see).

=Pyrrhic Dance.= The most famous of all the war-dances of antiquity; is said to have received its name from Pyrrhus, or Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles, and was a Doric invention. According to Plato, it aimed to represent the nimble motions of a warrior either avoiding missiles and blows, or assaulting the enemy; and in the Doric states it was as much a piece of military training as an amusement. Elsewhere in Greece, it was purely a mimetic dance, in which the parts were sometimes represented by women. It formed part of the public entertainments at the Panathenaic festivals. Julius Cæsar introduced it at Rome, where it became a great favorite.

Q.

=Quadi.= A powerful and warlike German tribe, belonging to the Suevic race, whose territories were situated between the Danube, the Bohemian mountains, and the river Marus. They make their first appearance in history in the 1st century as formidable foes of the Romans. Their bodies were covered with mail, consisting of plates of horn; their weapons were long spears; and each man had three swift horses for his use in battle. Thus equipped, they commenced the practice of making rapid and sweeping raids into Pannonia, Mœsia, and other neighboring provinces. Sometimes they routed the imperial forces which tried to check their inroads. At all times they returned home with their predatory spirit unbroken. No reverses in fact, however frequent, could daunt those wild border troopers of the Danube. The emperors Marcus Aurelius, Probus, Carus, and Valentinian I., defeated them without subduing or crushing them. The last glimpse that we get of them in history shows them in company with other barbaric hordes, in 407, overrunning Gaul, and reveling in boundless havoc and slaughter.

=Quadrant.= An instrument for measuring altitudes, variously constructed and mounted for different specific uses in astronomy, surveying, gunnery, etc., consisting commonly of a graduated arc of 90°, with an index or vernier, and either plain or telescopic sights, together with a plumb-line or spirit-level for fixing the vertical or horizontal direction.

=Quadrant, Gunner’s.= See GUNNER’S QUADRANT.

=Quadrat.= Or to quadrat a gun, is to see it duly placed on its carriage, and that the wheels be of an equal height.

=Quadriga.= In antiquity, a car or chariot, drawn by four horses harnessed abreast. This chariot was used in battle and in triumphal processions.

=Quadrilateral.= In military language, an expression designating a combination of four fortresses, not necessarily connected together, but mutually supporting each other; and from the fact that if one be attacked, the garrisons of the others, unless carefully observed, will harass the besiegers, rendering it necessary that a very large army should be employed to turn the combined position. As a remarkable instance, and a very powerful one, may be cited the celebrated quadrilateral in Venetia, comprising the four strong posts of Mantua, Verona, Peschiera, and Legnago. These form a sort of outwork to the bastion which the southern mountains of the Tyrol constitute, and divide the north plain of the Po into two sections by a most powerful barrier. Napoleon III., in 1859, even after the victories of Magenta and Solferino, hesitated to attack this quadrilateral.

=Quadrille= (_Fr._). Small parties of horse richly caparisoned, etc., in tournaments and at public festivals. The quadrilles were distinguished from one another by the shape or color of the coats which the riders wore.