Part 78

First.--_To find the height of the apparent level above the true, at any distance._--If the given distance be contained in the table, the correction of level is found in the same line with it; but if the exact distance be not found in the table, then multiply the square of the distance in yards, by 2.57, and divide by 1,000,000, or cut off 6 places on the right for decimals; the rest are inches: or multiply the square of the distance in miles, by 66 feet 4 inches, and divide by 100.

Second.--_To find the extent of the visible horizon, or how far can be seen from any given height, on a horizontal plane, at sea_, &c.--The height of the observer’s eye above the horizon being known, the extent of his visible horizon is found in the column opposite, under the word _Distances_.

Third.--_To find the distance of any object when it first comes in sight, its height being known._--For the distance of any object will be the extent of the visible horizon of the observer, added to the visible horizon of the point he observes. It is necessary in this case for the observer to know only the height of that part of the object which is kept from his view, by the curvilinear figure of the globe.--Knowing the distance of an object, its height may be found in the same manner.

If the height or distance exceed the limits in the table; then, first, if the distance be given, divide it by 2, 3, or 4, till the quotient comes within the distances in the table; then take out the height answering to the quotient, and multiply it by the square of the divisor for the height required. But when the height is given, divide it by one of these square numbers, 4, 9, 16, 25, &c. till the quotient come within the limits of the table, and multiply the quotient by the square root of the divisor.

LEVELLING _staves_, instruments used in levelling, that carry the marks to be observed, and at the same time measure the heights of those marks from the ground. These usually consist of two wooden square rulers, that slide over one another, and are divided into feet, inches, &c.

LEVELLING has two distinct applications in the art of war, in the one case it implies the reduction of an uneven surface to that of a plane, so that the works of a fortification may be of a correspondent height or figure throughout. The other is the art of conveying water from one place to another; in this process, it is found necessary to make an allowance between the true and apparent level, or in other words, for the figure of the earth, for the true level is not a straight line, but a curve which falls below the straight line about 8 inches in a mile, 4 times 8 in 2 miles, 9 times 8 in 3 miles, 16 times 8 in 4 miles, always increasing with the square of the distance.

LEVELLING _System_, a term which since the commencement of the French revolution has been grossly misinterpreted, and cannot be found in any civilized country to answer any other purpose than that of delusion; such was the calumny raised by the patricians of Rome, when they having plundered the soldiers of their lands and appropriated to themselves; when the people complained they were thus reproached; the _agrarian law_ which proposed only to restore the lands to the owners, was called a levelling system; but the people were robbed and the consequence was the ultimate ruin of Roman liberty, and Rome itself; the word Jacobin in modern times has superseded leveller.

LEVER, a balance which rests upon a certain determinate point called a fulcrum.

LEVER in _mechanics_, an inflective line, rod, or beam, moveable about, or upon a fixed point, called the prop or fulcrum, upon one end of which is the weight to be raised, at the other end is the power applied to raise it; as the hand, &c.

Since the momentum of the weight and power are as the quantities of matter in each, multiplied by their respective celerities; and the celerities are as the distances from the centre of motion, and also as the spaces passed through in a perpendicular direction in the same time, it must follow, that there will be an equilibrium between the weight and power, when they are to each other reciprocally as the distances from the centre, or as the celerities of the motions, or as the perpendicular ascent or descent in the same time; and this universally in all mechanical powers whatsoever, and which is therefore the fundamental principle of all mechanics. See MECHANICAL POWERS.

LEVET, the blast of a trumpet.

LEVIER, _Fr._ Lever. The French writers having been more explicit on this head than any of our lexicographers, we shall extract the following passages as conducive to general information. The levier or lever is an instrument made of wood or iron, by whose means the heaviest weights may be raised with few hands. When the lever is made of iron, it is called pince or crow. The lever may be considered as the first of all machines. Wheels, pullies, capstans, &c. act only by the power it possesses. The lever must be looked upon as a straight line, which has three principal points, namely, the one on which the load is placed, and which is to be raised, the appui or rest which is the centre round which it turns, and which the French mechanics call _orgueil_, and lastly the human arm, which is the power that puts the lever into motion. The different arrangements or disposition which is given to these three points, or rather the unequal distances at which they are placed, occasion the force that is collectively displayed.

Belidor makes the following remarks on this useful machine. It is an inflexible bar which must be considered as having no weight in itself, upon which three powers are made to act in three different points in such a manner, that the action of two powers must be directly opposed to the one that resists them. The point where the opposing power acts is called the _point d’appui_.

LEVIER, in artillery, a wedge.

LEVIER _de pointage_, _Fr._ a wedge to assist in pointing pieces of ordnance.

LEVIERS _de support_, _Fr._ a wedge by which cannon is raised to a certain line of direction.

_To_ LEVY, has three distinct military acceptations, as to _levy_ or _raise_ an army, to _levy_ or make war; and, to _levy_ contributions.

LEVY, the levying, or raising troops, by enregistering the names of men capable of bearing arms, for the common defence and safety of a country, has from time immemorial been a leading principle among men.

There are indeed some people still existing, who indiscriminately go to war, leaving, for the immediate security of their huts or habitations, only their old men, their wives and children.

Among the Romans, however, and in some other civilized countries, it was a prevailing maxim never to employ above a certain proportion of matured population, and that proportion consisted uniformly of men who were expert at arms.

National assemblies were called together whenever the situation of the country required, that the senate’s decree should be published and put into effect.

The levying or raising of troops for service was regulated in the following manner under two specific heads, called ordinary and extraordinary levy. The ordinary levy took place in consequence of a decree from the senate by which all males of a certain age were called out to do military service: the extraordinary levy was enforced when a deficiency was found in the ordinary levy to answer the immediate exigencies of the state.

The extraordinary levy, which was further distinguished by the word evocation, (See _Evocati_) was performed as follows. A public orator mounted the rostrum, and after having expatiated upon the urgency of the case, and paid a handsome tribute of commendation to all who should voluntarily step forward to defend their country, he entrusted the conclusion of the business to two superior officers who were to command the new levies.

These officers instantly unfurled two flags, and emphatically exclaimed, _let all those brave men who have the safety of the Republic at heart flock to our standards!_ A red flag was the rallying mark for all who were to serve on foot, and a blue flag pointed out the rendezvous for cavalry. Every one was at liberty to chuse the service he liked best.

With respect to the ordinary levy by which every citizen was liable to be called upon for personal service, it was conducted in the following manner.

All the different tribes into which the inhabitants of the country were divided, assembled in places marked out for that purpose, and as soon as a whole tribe, consisting of males only, had entered, the public crier called over, in a distinct and audible manner, the names of four persons, after which the first military tribune, from among those of that rank who were to command the intended legion, selected one out of the four, and had him enrolled.

The crier then called over the names of four others belonging to the same class, and the second tribune selected one from the four in the same manner as the first had done. This selection went on through the different classes, until the whole tribe was drafted, and another tribe was then subjected to the same rotation. Legions were formed out of these levies, and completed to so effective a strength, that three of them generally composed a Roman army. The Romans readily submitted to these calls of the state; and they did so the more cheerfully, because it was a fundamental rule amongst them, that no man could be provided for in a military or civil way, unless he had served a prescribed number of years.

Kennett, in his antiquities of Rome, gives the following account, which the reader will perceive differs in some particulars from the former.

“At the same time of the year as the consuls were declared _elect_ or _designed_, they chose the military tribunes; fourteen out of the body of the Equites who had served in the army five years, and ten out of the commonalty, such as had made ten campaigns. The former they called _tribuni juniores_, and the latter _seniores_.

The consuls having agreed on a levy (as, in the time of the commonwealth they usually did every year,) they issued out an edict, commanding all persons who had reached the military age (about seventeen years) to appear (commonly) in the capitol, or in the area before the capitol, as the most sacred and august place, on such a day. The people being come together, and the consuls who presided in the assembly having taken their seat, in the first place, the four and twenty tribunes were disposed of according to the number of legions they designed to make up, which was generally four. The _junior_ tribunes were assigned, four to the first legion, three to the second and last. After this, every tribe, being called out by lot, was ordered to divide into their proper centuries; out of each century were soldiers cited by name, with respect had to their estate and class; for which purpose, there were tables ready at hand, in which the name, age, and wealth of every person were exactly described. Four men, as much alike in all circumstances, as could be pitched upon, being presented out of the century, first the tribunes of the first legion chose one, then the tribunes of the second another, the tribunes of the third legion a third man, and the remaining person fell to the tribunes of the fourth. Then four more were drawn out; and now the right of chusing first belonged to the tribunes of the second legion; in the next four to the tribunes of the third legion, then to the tribunes of the fourth legion, and so round; those tribunes chusing last the next time, who chose first the time before; the most equal and regular method imaginable.

Cicero has remarked a superstitious custom observed in these proceedings; that the first soldier pitched upon should for the omen’s sake, be such as had fortunate names, as Salvius, Valerius, and the like. Cic. de Divinat. lib. 1.

There were in those times, (as in the present with respect to the militia) many legal excuses which might keep persons from the list; as, in case they were fifty years old, for then they could not be obliged to serve; or if they enjoyed any civil or sacred office, which they could not conveniently relinquish; or if they had already made twenty campaigns, which was the time required for every foot soldier; or if, upon account of extraordinary merit, they had been by public authority, released from the trouble of serving for such a time; or if they were maimed in any part, and so ought not to be admitted into the legions; as Suetonius tells us of a father who cut off the thumbs of his two sons on purpose to keep them out of the army (Sueton. August. chap. 24.) and Valerius Maximus gives a relation of the like nature. (Val. Max. lib. 6. cap. 3.)

Otherwise they were necessitated to submit, and in case of a refusal, were usually punished either with imprisonment, fine or stripes, according to the lenity, or severity of the consul. And therefore it seems strange, that Machiavel should particularly condemn the Roman discipline, upon account of forcing no one to the wars, when we have in all parts of history, such large intimations of a contrary practice. Nay, we read too of the _conquisitores_ or impress-masters, who were commissioned upon some occasions, to go about, and compel the men to the service of the state.

Valerius Maximus (lib. 6. chap. 3.) gives one example of changing this custom of taking out every particular soldier by the tribunes, for that of chusing them by lot. And Appianus Alexandrinus (in Iberic.) acquaints us, that in the Spanish war, managed by Lucullus, upon complaint to the senate of several unjust practices in the levies, the senate thought fit to chuse all the soldiers by lot. Yet the same author assures us, that within five years time the old custom returned of making the levies in the manner already described.

However, upon any extraordinary occasion of immediate service, they omitted the common formalities, and without much distinction, listed such as they met with, and led them out on an expedition. These they called _Milites Subitarii_. Kennett’s Ant. page 183, b. iv.

The French always followed the example of the Romans with regard to the first principles of levying men, which was effected by a proclamation from the court, called the _ban_. This ban was addressed to the principal person belonging to a province, who, in pursuance to its instructions, assembled his vassals, and got them fit and ready for immediate service.

In England a similar rotation took place; and the balloting for militia-men still exhibits some remains of that feudal system. But when regular armies became necessary in Europe (necessary only from the ambition of contiguous and rival nations!) a different system was adopted, and the natural strength of the country was made a secondary object. Disposable means of offence and defence were resorted to by crowned heads; and as war was became a science, permanent bodies of armed men were kept on foot to answer the purposes of prompt and vigorous decision.

Charles VIII. was the first monarch among the French who dispensed with the service of his noblemen, in themselves and vassals; these he replaced by raising regular companies of gendarmes, who were paid out of his privy purse; in process of time cavalry and infantry regiments, with appropriate trains of artillery, &c. were formed into a military establishment, and have continued ever since.

During the existence of the old government in France, it was customary for the king to issue orders that a certain bounty should be offered to all recruits who would inlist; and when regiments, in time of war, suffered materially, men were frequently drafted out of the militia to complete their establishment.

With respect to the standing or permanent army of England, the first traces of it are to be found during the reign of Henry VII.; from that period until the present time the military establishment of Great Britain has been progressive. Levies have been made in various ways, upon various principles.

The French system of conscription is the most profound and perfect that has ever been devised; no man is exempted. And in this respect it is the only system in its principle adapted to a free state, where all individuals having equal rights, have also corresponding duties and obligations.

LEVY likewise means inlisting money.

LICE, _Fr._ List for combats.

LICENCIEMENT _des troupes_, _Fr._ At the end of a campaign this generally happened in France, when troops could not any longer keep the field owing to the severity of the weather. In former times it was usual, during the continuance of a war, for the French army to retire into winter quarters about the latter end of October. But since the revolution, hostilities have been carried on at all seasons, and under the most disheartening pressure of the weather.

LICENCIEMENT _des equipages des vivres_, _Fr._ It was usual in the old French army, for an order to be issued by which the contractors and commissaries, for the time being, were discharged at the close of a campaign. The director general of the stores always preserved this order, as it formed the only final voucher, upon which the contractors could receive any demand against government. The greatest attention was paid to this important branch of military economy; and, if at the conclusion of a campaign, it was found necessary to retain any part of the establishment for the immediate subsistence of the troops in winter quarters, that part was minutely noticed in the order.

LICENCIER, _Fr._ to discharge.

LIDE, _Fr._ a warlike machine, which was formerly used to throw large stones against a fortified place, or upon an enemy.

_To_ LIE, in a military acceptation of the term, to be in quarters, in cantonments, or to be in camp: the fourth regiment of foot, for instance, LIES encamped between Fort Adams and Orleans: or it LIES at Orleans. The light dragoons LIE along the frontier.

_To_ LIE _in ambush_, to be posted in such a manner as to be able to surprise your enemy, should he presume to advance, without having previously cleared the woods, hedges, &c.

_To_ LIE _under cover_, to be under the protection of a battery, or to be sheltered by a wood, &c.

_To_ LIE _in wait_, to take a position unobserved by the enemy, and to remain under arms, in the expectation of suddenly falling upon his flanks or rear.

LIEU, _Fr._ League. There are three sorts of lieues or leagues in France, the great, middling, and small. The great French league contains three thousand geometrical paces, or two thousand five hundred toises; and the small league two thousand geometrical paces, that is, twice the extent of the Italian mile; which is so called, because it contains one thousand geometrical paces. According to an old existing regulation, the leagues of France were directed to contain two thousand two hundred toises, and two thousand six hundred and forty geometrical paces. See MEASURE.

_In_ LIEU. In the room, place, or stead of.

LIEUTENANT. This word is originally derived from the Latin legatus, locum tenens, and comes immediately to us from the French _lieu-tenant_, supplying or holding the place of another. In a military sense it means the second person or officer in command. _Lieutenant-general_, the next in command to a general; _lieutenant-colonel_, the next to a colonel; _captain-lieutenant_, an intermediate rank; and _lieutenant_, the next to a captain, in every company of both foot and horse, and who takes the command upon the death or absence of his superior officer. Fuzileer corps, grenadiers, and light infantry, in the British service, have second lieutenants and no ensigns, a very absurd distinction.

LIEUTENANT _of artillery_. In the British service each company of artillery has 4; 1 first and 3 second lieutenants. The first lieutenant has the same detail of duty with the captain, because in his absence he commands the company: he is to see that the soldiers are clean and neat: that their clothes, arms, and accoutrements are in good and serviceable order; and to watch over every thing else, which may contribute to their health. He must give attention to their being taught their exercise, see them punctually paid, their messes regularly kept, and visit them in the hospitals when sick. He must assist at all parades, &c. He ought to understand the doctrine of projectiles and the science of artillery, with the various effects of gunpowder, however managed or directed. He should likewise be able to construct and dispose batteries to the best advantage; to plant cannon, mortars, and howitzers, so as to produce the greatest annoyance to an enemy. He is to be well skilled in the attack and defence of fortified places, and to be conversant in arithmetic, mathematics, and mechanics, &c.

_Second_ LIEUTENANT, in the _artillery_, is the same as an ensign in an infantry regiment, being the youngest commissioned officer in the company. It is his duty to assist the first lieutenant in the detail of the company. His other qualifications should be the same as those required in the first lieutenant.

LIEUTENANT _of engineers_. See ENGINEERS.

LIEUTENANT-_colonel_. See COLONEL.

LIEUTENANT-_general_. See GENERAL.

LIEUTENANT _du Roi_, _Fr._ During the monarchy of France there was a deputy governor in every fortified place, or strong town, who commanded in the absence of the governor, and was a check upon his conduct when present. This person was called LIEUTENANT _du Roi_.

LIEUTENANT _Reduced_, (_Lieutenant Reformé_, _Fr._) he whose company or troop is broke or disbanded, but who continued in whole or half pay, and still preserves his right of seniority and rank in the army.

LIEUTENANT _de la Colonelle_, _Fr._ the second officer, or what was formerly styled the captain lieutenant of the colonel’s company of every infantry regiment, was so called in France.

LIEUTENANS _des Gardes Francoises et Suisses_, _Fr._ lieutenants belonging to the French and Swiss guards. During the existence of the monarchy in France they bore the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and took precedence of all captains.

LIEUTENANS _Provinciaux d’Artillerie_, _Fr._ were certain officers belonging to the old French service, and immediately attached to the artillery, who bore the title or name of the particular province in which they were stationed. The majority of this description were employed in the ordnance department; another part superintended different artillery departments upon the frontiers. Some were excused from all duty on account of their age and seniority.

Several provincial lieutenants, who had military employments under the board of ordnance, received the rank of lieutenant general in the army from the king, and could rise to the most exalted stations in common with other officers.