Part 71

A general may be said to act with _intrepidity_, when with forces inferior to those of his enemy, and under all the disadvantages of ground, &c. he hazards a general action, attacks his whole front, and finally defeats him. This hardiness and enterprize of character not only surprize your enemy, but likewise create emotions of wonder. If, on the contrary, a general at the head of a small army should be known to act against another that is superior to him in every point, except that of talent and military skill, and if by means of these qualities, the former should by able manœuvres and well concerted measures, render all the designs and attempts of the latter fruitless and abortive (at a time and under circumstances, which might dishearten almost any other general,) it is then fair to conclude, that the conduct of such a general is the consequence of great military knowlege; but it cannot, with propriety be said to be the result of _intrepidity_; for it must be evident, that before any very dangerous step has been taken, most of the obstacles have been previously removed or rendered practicable.

An officer, who is not under the influence of that species of _intrepidity_ which we have described, when he has once got upon equal ground, or finds it necessary to risk an action, will, without hesitation, advance against his enemy, depending wholly upon military skill and the superior disposition of his line of battle. Full of resources and with great presence of mind, he will march forward and obtain a victory, not by dint of courage or by the mere favor of fortune, but through judgment, military ingenuity, and great tactical knowlege. And yet it would be an injustice done to the character of such an officer, were it imagined, that he could act in this manner without possessing great intrepidity. We are rather of opinion that such a man must have the most undaunted courage, with the additional advantage of consummate prudence founded upon military knowlege. The intrepidity of his soul is calmed by the cooler judgment of his head; he is aware of difficulties, but is not disheartened by their appearance; he is, on the contrary, encouraged to surmount them by that self-possession, and by that unshaken presence of mind, which enable him to execute what might seem impracticable to others.

Mere _intrepidity_ is of a lively, impetuous nature, restless and impatient of restraint, which, though it may not degenerate into downright animal brutality, is nevertheless very far from being strictly rational or enlightened. If the person who acts under its immediate influence be quick in his perceptions, his conduct is generally marked by some imprudent measure, some enterprize that bids defiance to reflexion, and by some attempt that is as hastily executed as it has been inconsiderately planned. An _intrepidity_ of this species is seldom found in the first class of military character: sometimes indeed, but rarely, it has been accompanied by great prudence and foresight.

In this number may be considered some ancient and modern heroes, such as Alexander the great, Charles king of Sweden, Henry IV. of France, Wolfe at Quebec, Bonaparte and Augereau at Lodi; Dessaix, Marmont, and Lannes, at Marengo; Murat at Eylau; Davoust at Austerlitz; Soult at Jena; Claperede on the Danube, in 1809; if instances be found in their histories where prudence and discretion have been overleaped by an _intrepidity_ of soul that was too actively disposed on certain occasions, the effect was temporary, and easy to be traced to a cause which was too powerfully engrafted upon their nature, to be always subject to control.

INVALID properly includes every soldier that has been wounded, or has suffered materially in his health, and in consequence of his good conduct, has been recommended to a certain provision for life. Chelsea hospital is the place allotted for the reception of such objects of public gratitude and benevolence in England. Before the building of the hotel des invalides at Paris, all soldiers of the above description who belonged to the French army, were distributed among the frontier towns, and enjoyed a certain allowance for life.

In England, and, we presume, the custom still exists under the new order of things in France, those invalid soldiers who are reported not wholly incapable of bearing arms, are occasionally sent into garrisoned places, and do duty with the regular army.

It is a reproach to the United States that there is yet no provision for the maintenance of those who serve the best part of their lives in its military establishment.

INVALIDE, _Fr._ See INVALID.

INVASION, in war, the entrance or attack of an enemy on the dominions of another.

INVENTAIRE _des Effets des Officiers décedés_, _Fr._ Inventory of the effects of deceased officers. As the French regulations on this head were more specific than those expressed in our articles of war, we shall premise the extract from the latter, by the following particulars which were in force during the old government of France.

When governors, commandants of places, staff officers, commissaries of war, engineers and officers entrusted with the care of artillery, died in their several provinces or allotted quarters, the judges or magistrates belonging to the spot where such deaths occurred sealed up the effects of the deceased, and took an inventory of their property, without being, in the least, controled by any species of military authority. On the removal of the seals, the town-major or his adjutant received a specific statement of every thing which appertained to the situation or appointment of the deceased person or persons, which statement was transmitted to government.

The creditors of the deceased preferred a schedule of the debts contracted in each place of residence, before any of the ordinary justices, which debts were discharged out of the personal property that was left. But all other creditors must have recourse to the judge or justice belonging to the precise spot where the deceased resided; applications respecting all debts which exceeded the value of the personal effects were directed to be made through the same channel.

When officers died in a garrison town or upon a march, or when engineers, who had no particular fixed residence, or artillery officers that were upon leave, departed this life, the town-majors or aid-major of the towns or places, where such persons died, fixed their seals upon their effects. An inventory of these effects was afterwards taken, provided they were not claimed by the next heir; in which latter case, all the debts that had been contracted by the deceased in the place where he died, were ordered to be paid by the person who took possession of the property. Public notice was given by beat of drum, that a military sale would be made, and one sol in the livre was charged on all that was disposed of in this manner.

The man who beat the drum, and the person who enregistered the minutes of the sale, were paid out of this sol; whatever surplus remained, after a reasonable deduction had been made for these purposes, became the town-major’s property.

The produce of the sale was appropriated to the discharge of such debts as had been contracted in the garrison: and the judge or magistrate, whose particular province it was to take cognizance of all cases relating to property, placed his seal upon the remainder, which was deposited in a box. This box was delivered over to the person that had enregistered the effects and taken minutes of the sale; in whose hands it remained until claimed by the widow of the deceased, the residuary legatee, or by any creditors, except those who immediately belonged to the garrison.

When a captain in the French guards died or was killed, his heirs or executors were not obliged to discharge any demands which his company might have had upon him. If the sale of his private property should not be sufficient to defray these debts, the officer who succeeds to the company is bound to make up the remainder, and the soldier’s claim has the preference of all other demands. If there was an overplus, it was paid into the hands of the lawful heirs. The soldiers of the company received the moiety of what was due to them in ready money.

On the decease or departure of the officers belonging to any of the detached companies of invalids, the superior officer of that detachment in which the death or dereliction happened, ordered every article belonging to the royal hospital of invalids to be sold in the presence of the several officers, without deducting the sol in the livre. The produce of this sale was placed to the credit of the detachment; and all other articles belonging to the deceased were disposed of by the town-majors in the manner already mentioned.

The powers which were vested in the town-majors and staff-officers belonging to garrisoned places, were lodged in the hands of the majors or aid-majors of regiments, who upon the decease of an officer on service or in a place where there was not any staff, took a regular inventory of his effects, &c.

Town-majors were not authorized to put their seals upon the effects of deceased officers belonging to the Swiss regiments, as these had a peculiar military jurisdiction of their own. But other foreign troops in the service of France were not entitled to these privileges.

INVENTORY _of deceased officers effects, &c._ In the British army, when any commissioned officer happens to die or is killed on service, it is directed by the articles of war, that the major of the regiment, or the officer doing the major’s duty in his absence, shall immediately secure all his effects or equipage then in camp or quarters; and shall before the next regimental court-martial make an inventory thereof, and forthwith transmit the same to the office of our secretary at war, to the end, that the executors of such officer may, after payment of his regimental debts and quarters, and the expences attending his interment, receive the overplus, if any be, to his or their use.

When any non-commissioned officer or private soldier, happens to die, or is killed on service, the then commanding officer of the troop or company, shall, in the presence of two other commissioned officers, take an account of whatever effects he dies possessed of, above his regimental clothing, arms, and accoutrements, and transmit the same to the office of the secretary at war. These effects are to be accounted for and paid to the representatives of such deceased non-commissioned officer or soldier; and in case any of the officers so authorized to take care of the effects of dead officers and soldiers, should, before they have accounted to their representatives for the same, have occasion to leave the regiment by preferment or otherwise, they are ordered before they be permitted to quit the same, to deposit in the hands of the commanding officer or of the agent of the regiment, all the effects of such deceased non-commissioned officers and soldiers, in order, that the same may be secured for, and paid to, their respective representatives. See Articles of War, section XIX.

_To_ INVEST _a place_, (_investir une place_, _Fr._) A fortified town or place is said to be invested, when all the avenues leading to it have been seized upon by hostile troops, which are distributed and posted on the principal commands, to prevent any succour from being received by the garrison, and to keep the ground until the rest of the army with the artillery, can arrive to form a regular siege. To invest a place is, in fact, to take preparatory measures for a blockade, or a close siege. In order to do this effectually, the general in chief of the approaching army must detach a large body of cavalry, together with the different corps of dragoons under the command of a lieutenant-general, for the purpose of regularly investing the town. As secrecy is of the utmost consequence on this occasion, the troops belonging to the detachment must have their march so managed as to create an alarm and jealousy in some other quarter, by deviating from the road which leads directly to the proposed object of attack. The general, indeed, would act wisely, by giving written sealed orders to the commanding officer, with strict injunctions not to open them until the detachment should have reached a certain spot, and then only in the presence of some particular persons; by which means his real designs may be concealed. Sometimes a place is partially _invested_, for the sole purpose of diverting the enemy’s attention from the real object, and of inducing him to weaken the garrison, by detaching it to different quarters. Thus in 1710, the allied army suddenly appeared before the town of Ypres, and by threatening to besiege it, caused so many troops to be detached from Tournay to its relief, that the latter place, which was the real object of attack, and was one of the strongest towns in the Low Countries, afforded little or no resistance.

It is sometimes prudent to harrass and perplex the enemy that may be in the neighborhood of the town which you propose to attack, by perpetually driving in his out-posts, &c. and by forcing him to retire from the different avenues and commanding grounds; when the various objects, which are to facilitate the approaches of the besieging army, have been accomplished, the lieutenant-general who is entrusted with the investment of the town, must procure faithful and intelligent guides, advance by forced marches, halt as little as possible, and then only for the purpose of refreshing his men. He must studiously preserve the secret of his expedition, until he gets so near to the town, that the object of his approach becomes manifest and unequivocal.

When he arrives within one days march of the town, he must detach from his main body two or three parties of horse, (each party to be stronger than the garrison of the place) which must lie in ambush in the neighborhood, for the purpose of carrying off cattle, or of making prisoners. The instant he reaches the town, he must seize upon all the leading avenues, and draw his army up on some advantageous ground. He then goes out to reconnoitre, and to discover the most likely places by which succours might be conveyed into the town. He must have the precaution to post a strong guard in each of these places.

His next business will be to send out small scouting parties, in order to obtain correct intelligence respecting the enemy’s motions. Every outlet is blocked up by some dragoons, for the purpose of hemming in the garrison as close as possible. He makes it his study moreover to acquire personal information by examining the prisoners, with regard to the nature of the country, the different fords, rivulets, points of enfilade, avenues, strong buildings, or commanding heights in the neighborhood. He further enquires as to the strength of the garrison, and the number of officers; whether the governor suspects that a regular siege is intended: whether he expects succours, supplies of stores and ammunition, and from what quarter he is to be furnished; finally, whether the fortifications be in good repair, and the place equal to a defence.

At night he sends out advanced parties, with directions to bivouac within musquet shot of the town, and takes especial care always to post strong parties in those places and avenues by which succours and supplies might be easily conveyed to the garrison. He has likewise the precaution to have different small guards, or out-lying and in-lying piquets, both in his front and rear, to prevent surprizes. On these occasions the detachments are formed, half on foot and half mounted; those on foot constantly remaining at their horses’ heads, bridle in hand. These detachments are on the alert during the whole of the night, and only one half of the number is suffered to repose during the day.--Whenever the commanding officer has received intelligence of the approach of a body of troops to relieve the garrison, he must make his dispositions in such a manner as to give them battle, before they get sufficiently near to throw themselves into the town in scattered and divided parties. Great caution, however, must be observed under these circumstances, not to advance too far, lest it should only prove a feint on the enemy’s part, in order to induce him to weaken some of his posts; and by taking advantage of their absence, to throw some succours into the town.

As the principal, indeed the only object which the lieutenant-general can have, is to prevent any assistance being given to the garrison, whilst he _invests_ the place, he must always be on horseback; he must incessantly visit the different posts, thoroughly reconnoitre the country, and minutely examine those quarters, through which succours or supplies might be conveyed to the garrison, or which offer advantageous positions for his own troops to occupy. During the _investment_ of the town, it will be his duty to collect all the intelligence and information he can, respecting the state of the works and the adjacent points, in order to communicate fully with the general in chief, when he brings up the besieging army, and to put him in full possession of every thing, which may facilitate the object of his enterprize.

The chief engineers should always accompany the lieutenant-general who is entrusted with the _investing_ of a town, in order to get the necessary knowlege of the place before hand, and to understand how the lines of circumvallation, &c. should be drawn, three or four days before the main army arrives; they should moreover make several rounds for the purpose of reconnoitring. These measures will conduce a great deal towards a wise and effectual method of _investing_ the place. To accomplish these ends, a correct plan of the town must be procured. This plan must be reduced, and a rough sketch taken of every thing within half a league of the circumference of the town; after which a small chart may be drawn of the lines, &c. which are to be made for the purpose of carrying on the siege. This must be done in concert with the lieutenant-general who ought to know better than any body, what the order of battle will be, how much ground is to be occupied by the different brigades and regiments and what the relative detail of the whole army will require.

From the day on which a town is _invested_, every thing is thrown into motion. The train of artillery is directed to be brought out with necessary stores and ammunition, and proper carriages, with their drivers, are impressed; every department, in a word, performs its allotted duty, and the board of ordnance, as well as the commissary general’s office become subservient to the orders that are issued by the general in chief.

Whilst the necessary measures are adopted for the close _investing_ of the town, the main army approaches by forced marches, and generally arrives before the place five or six days after it has been invested. The lieutenant-general, or officer commanding the _investing_ army goes out to meet the main body when it is within half a league of the place, and communicates with the general; who, in consequence of the report he makes, gives directions respecting the lines of circumvallation, &c.

For further particulars on this article, see _Traité de l’Attaque des Places par le Marechal Vauban revue, &c. F. P. Foissac Chef de brigade au corps du Génie de la Republique Francaise_, vol. i. page 69.

INVESTISSEMENT. (A French word which is strictly military. The celebrated Vauban has erroneously used _investiture_ to signify the same thing.) The act of investing any town or place in such a manner as to prevent the garrison or inhabitants from receiving succours or provisions.

_To_ INUNDATE, in a military sense, is to overflow any part of a country, in order to prevent an enemy from advancing. Holland is particularly calculated for this species of defence.

INUNDATION. The act of letting water into a country, so that it shall be overflowed to prevent the approach of an enemy.

In the _Instruction adressée aux officiers d’Infanterie pour tracer et construire toutes sortes d’Ouvrages de Campagne, &c. par A. P. I. Belair, Chef de Brigade_, may be found some very sensible observations on the means of making inundations to answer military purposes, see page 119, &c. Chapitre Huitieme, _Moyens de faire des Inondations_. We likewise refer our military readers to the _Elemens de Fortification_, published by the same author, see pages, 75, 82, 83, and 84. In page 294 of his _Dictionnaire Militaire_, some excellent observations upon the same subject, may be seen under the article _Architecture hydraulique_.

JOAR, _Ind._ A general massacre of the women and children, which is sometimes performed by the Hindoos, when they find they cannot prevent the enemy from taking the town. When this dreadful and unnatural ceremony is to take place, a spot is selected, which is filled with wood, straw, oil, &c., the victims are enclosed, and the whole is set on fire.

_To_ JOIN. A technical word used in the British service, generally signifying to effect the junction of one military body with another. In a more limited sense, it means the accession of an individual voluntarily, or otherwise, to a corps or army. If an officer on being ordered to join, omits to do so wilfully, he is liable to be tried by a general court-martial, or to be peremptorily suspended by the commander in chief for being absent without leave.

JOINT _Bolts_. See BOLTS.

JOLS, _Fr._ Barges so called, are used in Denmark, and sometimes by the Russians.

JONCTION, _Fr._ See JUNCTION.

JOODAY PERRAPUT, _Ind._ A term used in India to signify a slave taken in war.

JOOMAN, _Ind._ Friday so called in India.

JOUE! _Fr._ A word of command in the French service answering to _aim!_

_Coucher en_ JOUE, _Fr._ To aim with a musquet, or other fire-arm, which is used as such--as _je l’avois dêjà couché en joue_, I had already taken my aim at him.

JOVES, _Fr._ The two sides in the epaulement of a battery which form the embrazure are so called.

JOUR, _Fr._ The tour of duty which is done in the course of a day and night.

_Etre de_ JOUR, _Fr._ To be officer of the day, or to command a body of troops at a siege or otherwise in the capacity of a general officer, &c. The usual time was 24 hours, at the expiration of which another officer undertook the duty, and was relieved by one of his own rank. See OFFICER _of the day_.

_Ordre du_ JOUR, _Fr._ Orders. See _General_ ORDERS.

JOURNAL, _Fr._ A public record or general orderly book, kept in the French service, and in which every transaction that occurred during a siege is entered by the governor of the town, for the future inspection of a superior authority. The general officer who carried on the siege of a place likewise kept a document of the sort, and minuted down every thing that happened under his command. So that the journal which was kept in this manner was a circumstantial detail of what occurred, day after day, during the attack and defence of a town.

JOURNAL _de l’armée_, _Fr._ See RETURNS.

JOURNEE, _Fr._ A term used among the French, to express any particular engagement or battle, as _la journée de Marengo_, the battle of Marengo. We frequently adopt the word day in the same sense: thus a hard fought _day_ signifies a hard fought _battle_.

JOUTE, _Fr._ A close fight between two individuals. It likewise means an engagement at sea.

JOUTER, _faire des joutes_, _Fr._ To run a tilt at one another with lances.

JOUST. See JUST.

IRAN, _Ind._ Persia.