Part 59

This _red_ L G, F G, or S G, denotes powder entirely made of the cylinder charcoal, and is that which is now always used on service. The white L G being a mixed powder, is not so uniform as the other, and is therefore generally used in filling shells, or for such other purposes as do not require much accuracy. All powder for service is mixed in proportions according to its strength, so as to bring it as much as possible to a mean and uniform force.

_French Gunpowder._--The French proof ball is of brass, and weighs 60 lbs. French: the diameter of the mortar 7 inches 9 points, or ³⁄₄ of a line, and has one line of windage. The chamber holds exactly 3 ounces; and their best powder must give a range of 90 toises, and their restoved powder a range of 80 toises, to be received into the service. But the powder they now make, when new, will give range of 100 and 120 toises; and Mr. Lombard calculates all his tables from experiments made with powder giving 125 toises with the eprouvette. The above dimensions and weights are all of old French standard.

_Invention of_ GUN-_powder_, is usually ascribed to one Bartholdus Schwartz, a German monk, who discovered it about the year 1320; it is said to have been first used in war by the Venetians against the Genoese in the year 1380. Thevel says its inventor was one Constantine Anelzen, a monk of Friburg. Peter Mexia says it was first used by Alphonsus XI. king of Castile, in the year 1342. Ducange adds, that there is mention made of this powder in the registers of the chambers of accounts of France, so early as the year 1338; and friar Bacon, expressly mentions the composition in his treatise _De Nullitate Magiæ_, published at Oxford in the year 1216. Some indeed are of opinion, that the Arabians or the latter Greeks were the first inventors of gunpowder, about the middle ages of our æra; because its Arabic name is said to be expressive of its explosive quality.

Considerable improvements have lately been made in the composition of gunpowder by the Chinese.

_Method of making_ GUNPOWDER. Take nitre, sulphur, and charcoal; reduce these to a fine powder, and continue to beat them for some time in a stone mortar with a wooden pestle, wetting the mixture occasionally with water, so as to form the whole into an uniform paste, which is afterwards reduced to grains, by passing it through a sieve; and in this form, being carefully dried, it becomes the common gunpowder. For greater quantities mills are used, by means of which more work may be performed in one day than a man can do in a hundred. See MILL.

This destructive powder is composed of 75 parts nitre, 9 sulphur, and 16 of charcoal, in the 100.

The granulation of gunpowder is performed by placing the mass, while in the form of a stiff paste, in a wire sieve, covering it with a board, and agitating the whole: by this means it is cut into small grains or parts, which, when of a requisite dryness, may be rendered smooth or glossy by rolling them in a cylindrical vessel or cask. Gunpowder in this form takes fire more speedily than if it be afterward reduced to powder, as may be easily accounted for from the circumstance, that the inflamation is more speedily propagated through the interstices of the grains. But the process of granulation does itself, in all probability, weaken the gunpowder, in the same manner as it is weakened by suffering it to become damp; for in this last case, the nitre, which is the only soluble ingredient, suffers a partial solution in the water, and a separation in crystals of greater or less magnitude; and accordingly the surfaces of contact are rendered less numerous.

The detonation of gunpowder has been always an interesting problem in chemistry. Numerous theories have been offered, to account for this striking fact. But it is now very well settled, that the nitric acid is decomposed by the heat of ignition; that is oxigen, combines with the charcoal, and forms carbonic acid, while the nitrogen, or other component part, with steam from the water of crystallization, becomes disengaged in the elastic form. Berthollet found, that the elastic product, afforded by the detonation of gunpowder, consisted of two parts nitrogen gas, and one carbonic acid gas. The sudden extrication and expansion of these airs are the cause of the effects of gunpowder.

The muriat afforded by combining the oxigenized muriatic acid and potash, affords gunpowder of much greater strength than the common nitre, but too dangerous for use. For the method of making this salt, See ACID (MURIATIC, OXIGENIZED).

_How to refine nitre._ Put into a copper, or any other vessel, 100 weight of rough nitre, with about 14 gallons of clean water, and let it boil gently for half an hour, and as it boils take off the scum; then stir it about in the copper, and before it settles put it into your filtering-bags, which must be hung on a rack, with glazed earthen pans under them, in which sticks must be laid across for the crystals to adhere to: it must stand in the pans for two or three days to shoot; then take out the crystals and let them dry. The water that remains in the pans boil again for an hour, and strain it into the pans as before, and the nitre will be quite clear and transparent; if not, it wants more refining; to effect which proceed as usual, till it is well cleansed of all its earthy parts.

_How to pulverize nitre._ Take a copper kettle, whose bottom must be spherical, and put into it 14lb, of refined nitre, with 2 quarts or 5 pints of clean water; then put the kettle on a slow fire; and when the nitre is dissolved, if any impurities arise, skim them off; and keep constantly stirring it with 2 large spattles till all the water exhales; and when done enough, it will appear like white sand, and as fine as flour; but if it should boil too fast, take the kettle off the fire, and set it on some wet sand, by which means the nitre will be prevented from sticking to the kettle. When you have pulverised a quantity of nitre, be careful to keep it in a dry place.

_Different kinds of_ GUNPOWDER. It being proper that every one who makes use of gun-powder should know of what it is composed, we shall give a brief account of its origin and use. Gunpowder, for some time after the invention of artillery, was of a composition much weaker than what we now use, or than that ancient one mentioned by Marcus Græcus: but this, it is presumed, was owing to the weakness of their first pieces, rather than to their ignorance of a better mixture: for the first pieces of artillery were of a very clumsy, inconvenient make, being usually framed of several pieces of iron bars, fitted together lengthways, and then hooped together with iron rings; and as they were first employed in throwing stone shot of a prodigious weight, in imitation of the ancient machines, to which they succeeded, they were of an enormous bore. When Mahomed II. besieged Constantinople in the year 1453, he battered the walls with stone bullets, and his pieces were some of them of the calibre of 1200lb. but they never could be fired more than four times in the 24 hours, and sometimes they burst by the first discharge. Powder at first was not grained, but in the form of fine meal, such as it was reduced to by grinding the materials together; and it is doubtful, whether the first grain of it was intended to increase its strength, or only to render it more convenient for the filling it into small charges, and the loading of small arms, to which alone it was applied for many years, whilst meal-powder was still made use of in cannon. But at last the additional strength, which the grained powder was found to acquire from the free passage of the fire between the grains, occasioned the meal-powder to be entirely laid aside. The coal for making gunpowder is either that of willow or hazle; but the lightest kind of willow is found to be the best, well charred in the usual manner, and reduced to powder. Corned powder was in use in Germany as early as the year 1568; but it was first generally used in England in the reign of Charles I.

_Government powder_, _Ordnance-powder_, such powder, as having undergone the customary proof, is so called, and received into the public magazines.

It has been recommended by a French writer to preserve gunpowder at sea by means of boxes, which should be lined with sheets of lead. M. de Gentien, a naval officer tried the experiment by lodging a quantity of gunpowder, and parchment cartridges, in a quarter of the ship which was sheathed in this manner. After they had been stowed for a considerable time, the gunpowder and cartridges were found to have suffered little from the moisture; whilst the same quantity, when lodged in wooden cases, became nearly half rotted.

_Proof of Gunpowder_, first take out of the several barrels of gunpowder a measure full, of about the size of a thimble, which spread upon a sheet of fine writing paper, and then fire it, if the inflammation be very rapid, the smoke rise perpendicular, and the paper be neither burnt nor spotted, it is then to be judged good powder.

Then 2 drams of the same powder are exactly weighed, and put into an eprouvette; which if it raises a weight of 24 pounds to the height of 3¹⁄₂ inches, it may be received into the public magazine as proof.

GUN-_powder prover_. See EPROUVETTE.

GUNSHOT, the reach or range of a gun. The space through which a shot can be thrown.

GUNSHOT-_wound_. Any wound received from the discharge of cannon or fire-arms.

GUNSMITH, a man who makes fire-arms.

GUNSTICK. The rammer or stick with which the charge is driven into the gun.

GUNSTOCK. The wood to which the barrel of the gun is fixed.

GUNSTONE. Such materials, chiefly stone, as were formerly discharged from artillery.

GUR, a house or dwelling in India.

GURRIES, mud forts made in India are so called. These forts are sometimes surrounded with ditches.

GURRY, an indian term to express a certain division of time, comprehending 24 minutes; but the word among the Europeans is generally understood to mean an _hour_. A watch is called a gurry.

GUALIOR, a stupendous military fortification on the summit of a rocky eminence in India, south of Jumma, 28 coss, or 56 English miles, from Agra. It was once taken by a daring enterprize by Col. Popham.

GHYRETTY, cantonments seven coss (14 English miles) from Calcutta. It is a palace built by Mr. Dupleix, which the British took by force in 1797, and imprisoned the principal French colonists of Chandernagore there. This was two years before the war in Europe.

GYMNASTIC, (_gymnastique_, _Fr._) pertaining to athletic exercises, such as leaping, wrestling, drawing the cross bow, fencing, &c. The Greeks, among whom the art originated, were accustomed to strip whenever they performed any part of it.

H.

HABERGEON, a small coat of mail, or only sleeves and gorget of mail, formed of little iron rings or meshes linked together.

HABILIMENTS _of war_, in ancient statutes, signify armor, harness, utensils, or other provisions, without which it is supposed there can be no ability to maintain a war.

HABILLEMENT _des troupes_, _Fr._ properly means the regimental clothing or the uniform of soldiers. The clothing of the French army was not reduced to any regular system before the reign of Louis the 14th. The following observations relative to this important object are too appropriate, and suit all countries too well, to be left unnoticed.

The dress of a soldier should be plain, and made up so as to facilitate every movement of his person, to guard him against the inclemency of the weather, and to be remarkable for its collective uniformity of appearance. Next to these general requisites, the ease of each individual should be consulted; particularly with regard to the breeches, trowsers, or pantaloons. Regimental surgeons will certainly say, that in some instances men have suffered as much from an inattention to this part of their dress, as from the most harrassing service in the face of an enemy. The loins should invariably be covered, the stride be made easy, and the bend of the knee be left unembarrassed. Under the old French government, the whole infantry was clothed in white, with facings of various colors; but both the officers and the men were extremely plain in every part of their dress. Since the revolution, the national color, which was white, has been changed to blue. Not only the soldiers, but the waggon-drivers, &c. had a particular dress to distinguish them from other people. See UNIFORM.

_Un_ HABIT _d’ordonnance_, _Un_ HABIT _d’uniforme_, _Fr._ regimental coat; or clothing.

HACHE, _Fr._ a hatchet.

HACHE _d’armes_, _Fr._ a hatchet or battle-axe.

In ancient times this weapon was frequently resorted to by whole armies when they engaged. At present it is only used on particular occasions, in sorties, &c. or boarding ships.

HACHE, _Fr._ A term which was formerly used among the French to express a certain punishment that military delinquents were obliged to undergo. It consisted in being loaded with a pack or saddle, which the guilty person was under the necessity of carrying a specified distance, and which entailed disgrace upon the bearer.

HACHER, _Fr._ to cut to pieces. This word is very frequently used among the French in a military sense, viz.

_Un bataillon, ou un escadron s’est fait_ HACHER _en pièces_, a battalion, or a squadron has suffered itself to be cut to pieces.

They likewise make use of the expression in familiar discourse, as speaking of truth, viz

_On se feroit_ HACHER _en pièces pour la verite_; one would be cut to pieces for the support of truth.

HACHEREAU, _Fr._ a small hatchet.

HACKERY, an Indian two wheel carriage or cart, drawn by oxen.

HACQUETON. See HATCHET.

HACQUET-WAGEN, a four-wheeled waggon, which is used in the Prussian service to convey pontoons. The under-frame of this carriage is built like that of a chariot, by which means it can turn without difficulty.

HAIL-SHOT. See GRAPE-SHOT.

HAIR-CLOTH, a stuff made of hair. It is laid on the door of powder-magazines and laboratories, to prevent accidents of fire from the shoes of the men treading or rubbing upon nails, sand, or gravel.

HAIR-CLOTH--Weight 30 lbs.--length 15 feet--breadth 11 feet.

HAKIM. A term used in India to signify a master, the governor of a city, a judge, or a king. It sometimes means the government, and power.

HALBERD, HALBERT, a weapon formerly carried by the serjeants of foot and artillery. It is a sort of spear, the shaft of which is about 6 feet long, generally made of ash. Its head is armed with a steel point edged on both sides. Besides this point, which is in a line with the shaft, there is a cross piece of iron, flat and turned down at one end, but not very sharp, so that it serves equally to cut down or thrust with. This weapon has of late been exchanged for the half-pike.

HALBERDIER, a soldier armed with a halbert.

HALEBARDE, _Fr._ halbert. This weapon, as well as the pike, was first adopted by the French, in imitation of a similar one which was carried by the Swiss troops. It was not known in that country before the reign of Louis XI. and when it fell into disuse among the rank and file, it was confined to the serjeants of infantry. The length of a French halbert was six of their feet from one extremity to the other. The handle or shaft was a long stick, with a strong, sharp, iron ferrel at the end, and the upper part had a flat sharp blade, with a cross bar attached to it.

HALF, is frequently used in military terms. Thus,

HALF-BRIGADE, (_demie brigade_, _Fr._) which signifies half the number of men of which a whole brigade is composed. A brigade of infantry in the French army, consists of six battalions, each of one thousand men, making together six thousand men. Three thousand of course constitutes a demie-brigade, or half-brigade. In the British service, a brigade is various, according to the number of regiments that may be encamped, or lie contiguous to each other. Sometimes two, three, or four regiments form a brigade; so that half the recited number of men which composes a brigade, whether of cavalry or infantry, makes a half-brigade.

HALF-COMPANIES. The same as subdivisions, and equal to a platoon.

HALF DISTANCE, signifies half the regular interval or space between troops drawn up in ranks, or standing in column.

HALF FILES, half the given number of any body of men drawn up two deep.

Half-files are so called in cavalry, when the men rank off singly.

HALF-FILE _leader_, (_Chef de demi-file_, _Fr._) the foremost man of a rank entire.

HALF-BATTA. An extra allowance which has been granted to the whole of the officers belonging to the British east Indian army, except in Bengal, when out of the company’s district in the province of Oude. In the upper provinces double batta is allowed. All above full is paid by the native princes, as the troops stationed in that quarter are considered as auxiliaries. The full batta is an allowance granted to both officers and men whenever they are under canvas. Batta is equal to full pay.

HALF-CIRCLE _guard_, one of the guards used with the broad-sword to parry an inside cut below the wrist, formed by dropping the point of the sword outward in a semicircular direction, with the edge turned to the left, and raising the hand to the height of the face.

HALF-CIRCLE _parade_, a parade of the small sword, used against the thrust in low carte.

HALF-HANGER, _or_ HALF-HANGING-GUARD, a position of defence in the art of broad-sword; differing from the hanging-guard, in the sword-hand not being raised so high, but held low enough to see your opponent over the hilt. See BROADSWORD.

HALF-MOON, _or demi-lune_, _Fr._ See FORTIFICATION.

HALF-PAY, a certain allowance which is made to officers in the British service who have been reduced, in consequence of some general order that effects whole corps, supernumerary companies or individuals.

It may likewise be considered as a compensation to individuals, who have been permitted to retire from the active functions of military life.

HALF-PAY _officers_ are, to all intents and purposes, out of the reach of military cognizance. They cannot be tried by martial law; nor are they liable to be called upon either as members of a court martial, or for the purpose of actual service.

HALF-PIKE, (_demi pique_, _Fr._) a small pike, which was formerly carried by officers.

HALF-SWORD, close fight, within half the length of a sword.

HALT [French _halte_], is a discontinuance of the march of any body of men, armed or unarmed, under military direction. It is frequently practised for the purpose of easing troops during their progress through a country, or to render them fresh and active previous to any warlike undertaking.

Frequent halts are made during the passage of obstacles, and in an intersected country, in order to obviate the inconvenience and danger which must attend a column whose head is advanced too far to preserve the regular succession of all its component parts. Nothing, indeed, can be more pregnant with mischief than such a chasm; for, if the enemy be in the neighborhood, both front and rear are exposed. The best way in the passage of defiles, &c. is to proceed to a distance beyond it which shall be sufficiently extensive to admit of the whole number; there to halt, and not to march forward until the rear has completely cleared the obstacle.

HALT, is likewise a word of command in familiar use when a regiment is on its march from one quarter to another. The men are permitted to refresh themselves half-way. It should be generally observed, that to prevent soldiers from straggling about, or getting among persons who might entice them to be disorderly, a strict order ought to be given by the commanding officer of every battalion not to allow any division or detachment to halt in or near a town or village. A convenient midway spot should be chosen for the purpose, and when the men have piled their arms (which may be done in line or in column), a few steady soldiers should be detached to guard the ground, and to prevent others from straggling beyond certain limits. Among the French it was usual for the commanding officer of a battalion, division, or detachment, in hot weather, to send a sergeant and a few steady grenadiers forward, in order to secure good water for the troops. This practice ought to be avoided as much as possible; for men are more exposed to suffer from drinking when overheated, than they would be by patiently enduring the thirst until they reached the spot where the day’s march is to terminate.

_To_ HALT _in open column for the purpose of wheeling up into line_. When the several companies of one or more battalions have entered the alignement, and marched with their guides of manœuvre, or pivot flanks along the line, covering each other at their due distances (for which company officers are answerable), the open column is then in a state to be wheeled into line.

As soon, therefore, as the head or rear division, according to circumstances, arrives at the given point where it is to form line, the commander of the battalion gives the word _mark time_, in order to afford the several ranks time to correct their dressing and distance by their guides and pivots: on the delivery of this word, the foot which is then off the ground, finishes its proper step, and the other is brought up to it; and when the whole are dressed the word is given to _halt_. The instant the _halt_ is ordered, the commanding officer from the head division of each battalion (taking care that an adjutant is placed in the true line) makes any small correction on a near point in that line that the pivots may require, although no such correction ought to be necessary.

_To_ HALT _after having wheeled from open column_. The officers commanding companies, &c. having during the wheel turned round to face their men, and inclined towards the pivot of the preceding company, as they perceive their wheeling men make the step which brings them up to their several pivots, they give the word _mark time--halt_. The men, on receiving this last word of command, halt with their eyes still turned to the wheeling flank, and each officer being then placed before the preceding guide or pivot, to which his men are then looking, corrects the interior of his company upon that pivot, his own pivot, and the general line of the other pivots. This being quickly and instantaneously done, the officer immediately takes his post on the right of his company, which has been preserved for him by his serjeant. Thus the whole line, when halted, is imperceptibly dressed.

In cavalry movements, when the open column halted on the ground on which it is to form, wheels up into line, the following specific instructions must be attended to:

Distances being just, guides and pivot leaders being truly covered, the caution is given, _Wheel into line!_ when the then pivot-flank leaders place themselves each on the _reverse_ flank of such divisions, as by its wheel up brings them to their true place in the squadron. The leading division of each squadron sends out a guide to line himself with the pivot files. At the word _march!_ the whole wheel up into line, which is marked by the guides or pivots, and also bounded by the horses’ heads of the faced guides of it.--_Dress--halt!_ is then given (as well as the other words by each squadron leader) the instant before the completion of the wheel; the eyes are then turned to the standing flank (to which the correction of the squadron is made), and remain so till otherwise ordered; so that a line formed by wheels to the left, will remain with eyes to the right; and one formed by wheels to the right will remain with eyes to the left.

During the wheel up, the standard moves to its place in squadron, and at the halt every individual must have gained his proper post.

HALTE, _Fr._ See HALT.