Part 17

_Piers_, the walls built for the support of the arches, and from which they spring as their bases. They should be built of large blocks of stone, solid throughout, and cramped together with iron, which will make the whole as one solid stone. Their faces or ends, from the base up to high-water-mark, should project sharp out with a salient angle, to divide the stream: or, perhaps the bottom of the pier should be built flat or square up to about half the height of low-water-mark, to allow a lodgement against it for the sand and mud, to go over the foundation; lest, by being kept bare, the water should in time undermine, and so ruin or injure it. The best form of the projection for dividing the stream, is the triangle; and the longer it is, or the more acute the salient angle, the better it will divide it, and the less will the force of the water be against the pier; but it may be sufficient to make that angle a right one, as it will make the work stronger; and in that case the perpendicular projection will be equal to half the breadth or thickness of the pier. In rivers, on which large heavy craft navigate and pass the arches, it may, perhaps, be better to make the ends semicircular: for, although it does not divide the water so well as the triangle, it will both better turn off and bear the shock of the craft.

The thickness of the piers should be such as will make them of weight or strength sufficient to support their interjacent arch independent of any other arches; and then, if the middle of the pier be run up to its full height, the centering may be struck to be used in another arch before the hanches are filled up. The whole theory of the piers may be seen in the third section of Professor Hutton’s _Principles of Bridges_.

They should be made with a broad bottom on the foundation, and gradually diminishing in thickness by off-sets up to low-water-mark.

_Piles_, are timbers driven into the bed of the river for various purposes, and are either round, square, or flat like planks. They may be of any wood which will not rot under water; but oak and fir are mostly used, especially the latter, on account of its length, straightness, and cheapness. They are shod with a pointed iron at the bottom, the better to penetrate into the ground, and are bound with a strong iron band or ring at top, to prevent them from being split by the violent strokes of the ram by which they are driven down.

Piles are either used to build the foundations on, or they are driven about the pier as a border of defence, or to support the centres on; and in this case, when the centreing is removed, they must either be drawn up, or sawed off very low under water; but it is better to saw them off and leave them sticking in the bottom, lest the drawing of them out should loosen the ground about the foundation of the pier. Those to build on, are either such as are cut off by the bottom of the water, or rather a few feet within the bed of the river; or else such as are cut off at low-water mark, and then they are called stilts. Those to form borders of defence, are rows driven in close by the frame of a foundation, to keep it firm, or else they are to form a case or jettée about the stilts, to keep the stones within it, that are thrown in to fill it up: in this case, the piles are grooved, driven at a little distance from each other, and _plank-piles_ let into the grooves between them, and driven down also, till the whole space is surrounded. Besides using this for stilts, it is sometimes necessary to surround a stone pier with a sterling, or jettée, and fill it up with stones to secure an injured pier from being still more damaged, and the whole bridge ruined. The piles to support the centres may also serve as a border of piling to secure the foundation, cutting them off low enough after the centre is removed.

_Pile-driver_, an engine for driving down the piles. It consists of a large ram or iron sliding perpendicularly down between two guide posts; which being lifted up to the top of them, and there let fall from a great height, comes down upon the top of the pile with a violent blow. It is worked either with men or horses, and either with or without wheel-work. The bridge on Schuylkill, Philadelphia, is a master-piece of workmanship; and the new bridge at Trenton, over the Delaware, is equally bold and ingenious in its plan--in the latter the floor is suspended from the voussoirs of the arches, by stirrups of iron.

_Pitch_, of an arch, the perpendicular height from the spring or impost to the key stone.

_Plan_, of any part, as of the foundations, or piers, or superstructure, is the orthographic projection of it on a plane parallel to the horizon.

_Push_, of an arch. See DRIFT.

_Salient angle_, of a pier, the projection of the end against the stream, to divide itself. The right-lined angle best divides the stream, and the more acute, the better for that purpose; but the right angle is generally used, as making the best masonry. A semicircular end, though it does not divide the stream so well, is sometimes better in large navigable rivers, as it carries the craft the better off, or bears their shocks the better.

_Shoot_, of an arch. See DRIFT.

_Springers_, are the first or lowest stones of an arch, being those at its feet, and bearing immediately on the impost.

_Sterlings_, or _Jettées_, a kind of case made about a pier of stilts, &c. to secure it, and is particularly described under the next word, _Stilts_.

_Stilts_, a set of piles driven into the space intended for the pier, whose tops being sawed level off, above low-water mark, the pier is then raised on them. This method was formerly used when the bottom of the river could not be laid dry; and these stilts were surrounded, at a few feet distance, by a row of piles and planks, &c. close to them like a coffer-dam, and called a _sterling_, or _jettée_; after which loose stones, &c. are thrown or poured down into the space, till it is filled up to the top, by that means forming a kind of pier of rubble of loose work, and which is kept together by the sides or sterlings: this is then paved level at the top, and the arches turned upon it. This method was formerly much used, most of the large old bridges in England being erected that way, such as London bridge, Newcastle bridge, Rochester bridge, &c. But the inconveniences attending it are so great, that it is now quite disused; for, because of the loose composition of the piers, they must be made very large or broad, or else the arch must push them over, and rush down as soon as the centre was drawn; which great breadth of piers and sterlings so much contracts the passage of the water, as not only very much to incommode the navigation through the arch, from the fall and quick motion of the water; but likewise to put the bridge itself in much danger, especially in time of floods, when the water is too much for the passage. Add to this, that besides the danger there is of the pier bursting out the sterlings, they are also subject to much decay and damage by the velocity of the water and the craft passing through the arches.

_Thrust._ See DRIFT.

_Voussoirs_, the stones which immediately form the arch, their undersides constituting the intrados. The middle one, or key-stone, should be about ¹⁄₁₅th or ¹⁄₁₆th of the span, as has been observed; and the rest should increase in size all the way down to the impost: the more they increase the better, as they will the better bear the great weight which rests upon them without being crushed; and also will bind the firmer together. Their joints should also be cut perpendicular to the curve of the intrados. For more information, see Professor Hutton’s _Principles of Bridges_, in 8vo.

BRIDGE, in gunnery, the two pieces of timber which go between the two transoms of a gun-carriage, on which the coins are placed, for elevating the piece. See CARRIAGE.

BRIDLE-_Arm Protect_, a guard used by the cavalry, which consists in having the sword-hilt above the helmet; the blade crossing the back of the head, the point of the left shoulder, and the bridle-arm; its edge directed to the left, and turned a little upwards, in order to bring the mounting in a proper direction to protect the hand.

BRIDON, or BRIDOON, the snaffle and rein of a military bridle, which acts independent of the bit and curb at the pleasure of the rider.

BRIGADE, in military affairs, implies a party or division of a body of soldiers, whether horse, foot, or artillery, under the command of a brigadier. There are, properly speaking, three sorts of brigades, viz. the brigade of an army, the brigade of a troop of horse, and the brigade of artillery. A brigade of the army is either foot or dragoons, whose exact number is not fixed, but generally consists of 3, 4, 5 or 6 regiments, or battalions: a brigade of horse may consist of 8, 10 or 12 squadrons; and that of artillery, of 6, 8 or 10 pieces of cannon, with all their appurtenances. The eldest brigade takes the right of the first line, the second of the second line, and the rest in order, the youngest always possessing the centre, unless the commander deems a different arrangement expedient; and in such case mere etiquette always bends to orders. The cavalry and artillery observe the same order.

_The Horse Artillery_ in the British service are called the _horse Brigade_; and consist of 6 troops, with their guns and stores. Their head-quarters are at Woolwich, where handsome barracks, detached from those of the royal artillery, have been erected for their accommodation.

A BRIGADE, in the French ordination, is the same as our _Regiment_; but it consists of 3 battalions, each of which is equal to one of our regiments or 1000 men; a demi brigade is half a regiment, or a French battalion.

BRIGADE-_Major_, an officer appointed by the brigadier, to assist him in the management of his brigade. The most experienced captains are generally nominated to this post; who act in the brigade as major-generals do in the armies, receiving their orders from their commanders.

BRIGADE-_Major-General_. The military commands in Great Britain being divided into districts, an office has been established for the sole transaction of brigade duties. Through this office all orders from the commander-in-chief to the generals of districts relative to corps of officers, &c. must pass. For further information on this head, see James’s _Regimental Companion_, 2d edition, vol. i. page 25.

BRIGADE _de Boulangers_, _Fr._ It was usual in the old French service, to brigade the bakers belonging to the army. Each brigade consisted of one master baker and three boys; the system is continued in the modern French army.

BRIGADIER, a military officer, whose rank is next above that of a colonel; appointed to command a corps, consisting of several battalions or regiments, called a brigade. This title in England is suppressed in time of peace, but revived in actual service in the field. Every brigadier marches at the head of his brigade upon duty. On the United States establishment, there is only one brigadier-general, who is chief in actual command; provision has been lately made by law for two more in case of war.

BRIGANDINE, or BRIGANTINE, in ancient military history, a coat of mail, or kind of defensive armor, consisting of tin.

BRINGERS-_up_, an antiquated military expression, to signify the whole rear rank of a battalion drawn up, as being the hindmost men of every file.

BRINS-_d’Est_, _Fr._ large sticks or poles resembling small pickets, with iron at each end. They are used to cross ditches, particularly in Flanders.

BRISURE, in fortification, is a line of four or five fathom, which is allowed to the curtain and orillon, to make the hollow tower, or to cover the concealed flank.

BROADSIDE, in a sea fight, implies the discharge of all the artillery on one side of a ship of war.

BROAD-SWORD, a sword with a broad blade, chiefly designed for cutting; not at present much used in the British service, except by some few regiments of cavalry and Highland infantry. Among the cavalry, this weapon has in general given place to the sabre.

The principal guards with the broad-sword are:

The _inside guard_, (similar to carte in fencing,) which is formed by directing your point in a line about six inches higher than your antagonist’s left eye, the hilt opposite your own breast, the finger-nails turned upwards, and the edge of the sword to the left.

The _outside guard_, (resembling tierce,) in which, by a turn of the wrist from the former position, the point of the sword is directed above your antagonist’s right eye, the edge of the weapon turned to the right, and the finger-nails downward; the arm sufficiently straightened to the right to protect the outside of your body from the attack.

The _medium guard_, which is a position between the inside and outside guard, seldom used, as it affords very little protection.

The _hanging guard_, (similar to prime and seconde) in which the hilt of your sword is raised high enough to view your opponent under the shell, and the point directed towards his body.

The _St. George’s guard_, which protects the head, and differs from the last-described only in raising the hand somewhat higher, and bringing the point nearer to yourself.

The swords worn by officers of the infantry being constructed either for cutting or thrusting, it is necessary for gentlemen to be acquainted both with the method of attacking and defending with the broad sword and with the rapier. Those who have not opportunity of regular lessons from a professed teacher, may obtain much useful information from a work entitled the Art of Defence on Foot, with the Broad Sword, &c. in which the spadroon or cut and thrust sword play is reduced into a regular system.

BROND. See BRAND.

BROWNBILL, the ancient weapon of the English foot, resembling a _battle-ax_.

BRUNT. The troops who sustain the principal shock of the enemy in action, are said to bear the _brunt_ of the battle.

BRUSQUER _une attaque_, _Fr._ is to open the trenches in the nearest approaches to a place, completing the works from the front towards the rear. This undertaking is extremely hazardous, unless the object invested, or attacked, be ill-garrisoned, have a narrow front to besiege, the ditches be dry, &c.

BRUSQUER _l’affaire_, _Fr._ to attack suddenly, and without attending to any regular rule of military manœuvre.

BUCCANEERS, in military history, a name frequently applied to those famous adventurers, consisting of pirates, &c. from all the maritime nations of Europe, who formerly joined together, and made war upon the Spaniards in America.

BUCKETS. Water-buckets are necessary appendages to field-pieces, to cool the gun when hotly engaged; otherwise it might fire itself, or run at the muzzle.

BUCKLER, a piece of defensive armor used by the ancients. It was always worn on the left arm, and composed of wicker-work, of the lightest sort, but most commonly of hides, fortified with plates of brass or other metals. The shape of it varied considerably, being sometimes round, sometimes oval, and often nearly square. The shield of Achilles in the Illiad, as well as the book itself merits the attention of the military student.

BUDGE-_Barrels_. See BARREL.

BUFF-_Leather_, in military accoutrements, is a sort of leather prepared from the buffalo, which, dressed with oil, after the manner of shamoy, makes what is generally called buff-skin. Sword-belts were made of this leather.

BUGLE-HORN, the old Saxon horn; it is now used by the light infantry, and particularly by riflemen. By its soundings, their manœuvres are directed, either in advancing, skirmishing, or retreating. It is also used by the horse artillery, and some regiments of light cavalry.

BUILDING, in a general sense, a fabric erected by art, either for devotion, magnificence, conveniency, or defence.

_Military_ BUILDINGS, are of various sorts, viz. powder-magazines, bridges, gates, barracks, hospitals, store-houses, guard-rooms, &c.

_Regular_ BUILDING, is that whose plan is square, the opposite sides equal, and all the parts disposed with symmetry.

_Irregular_ BUILDING, that whose plan is not contained within equal or parallel lines, either by the accident of situation, or the design of the builder, and whose parts are not relative to one another in the elevation.

_Insulated_ BUILDING, that which is not contiguous to any other, but is encompassed with streets, open squares, &c. or any building which stands in a river, on a rock surrounded by the sea, marsh, &c.

_Engaged_ BUILDING, one surrounded with other buildings, having no front to any street or public place, nor any communication without, but by a common passage.

_Interred_ or _sunk_ BUILDING, one whose area is below the surface of the place where it stands, and of which the lowest courses of stone are concealed.

In _building_ there are three things to be considered, viz. commodity or conveniency; secondly, firmness or stability; thirdly, delight.

To accomplish which ends, Wotton considers the whole subject under two heads, namely, the seat or situation, and the work.

1. As for the seat, either that of the whole is to be considered, or that of its parts.

2. As to the situation, regard is to be had to the quality, temperature, and salubrity or healthiness of the air; that it be a good healthy air, not subject to foggy noisomeness from adjacent fens or marshes; also free from noxious mineral exhalations; nor should the place want the sweet influence of the sun-beams, nor be wholly destitute of the breezes of wind, that will fan and purge the air; the want of which would render it like a stagnated pool, and would be very unhealthy.

In the foundations of _buildings_, Vitruvius orders the ground to be dug up, to examine its firmness; that an apparent solidity is not to be trusted, unless the whole mould cut through be sound and solid: ’tis true, he does not say to what depth it should be dug: but Palladio determines it to be a sixth part of the height of the building.

The great laws of walling are:--1. That the walls stand perpendicular on the ground-work, the right angle being the foundation of all stability. 2. That the largest and heaviest materials be the lowest, as more proper to sustain others than be sustained themselves. 3. That the work diminish in thickness, as it rises, both for the ease of weight and to lessen the expence. 4. That certain courses, or lodges, of more strength than the rest, be interlaid, like bones, to sustain the wall from total ruin, if some of the under parts chance to decay. 5. Lastly, that the angles be firmly bound, they being the nerves of the whole fabric. These are sometimes fortified on each side the corners, even in brick buildings, with square stones; which add both beauty and strength to the edifice. See STONE, BRICKS, LIME, SAND.

BULLETIN, _Fr._ any official account which is given of public transactions. See GAZETTE.

BULLETS, are leaden balls, wherewith all kinds of small fire-arms are loaded. The diameter of any bullet is found, by dividing 1.6706 by the cube root of the number, which shews how many of them make a pound; or it may be done in a shorter way. From the logarithm .2228756 of 1.6706 subtract continually the third part of the logarithm of the number of bullets in the pound, and the difference will be the logarithm of the diameter required.

Thus the diameter of a bullet, whereof 12 weigh a pound, is found by subtracting .3597270, a third part of the logarithm of 12, from the given logarithm .2228756, or, when the logarithm is less than the former, an unit must be added, so as to have 1.2228756, and the difference .8631486 will be the logarithm of the diameter sought, which is .7297 inches; observing that the number found will always be a decimal, when the logarithm, which is to be subtracted, is greater than that of one pound; because the divisor is greater than the dividend in this case.

Hence, from the specific gravity of lead, the diameter of any bullet may be found from its given weight: for, since a cube foot weighs 11325 ounces, and 678 is to 355 as the cube 1728 of a foot, or 12 inches, is the content of the sphere, which therefore is 5929.7 ounces: and since spheres are as the cubes of their diameters; the weight 5929.7 is to 16 ounces, or 1 pound, as the cube 1728 is to the cube of the diameter of a sphere which weighs a pound; which cube therefore is 4.66263, and its root 1.6706 inches, the diameter sought.

The diameter of musket bullets differs but ¹⁄₅₀th part from that of the musket bore; for if the shot but just rolls into the barrel, it is sufficient. The English allow 11 bullets in the pound for the proof of muskets, and 14 in the pound, or 29 in two pounds, for service; 17 for the proof of carbines, and 20 for service; and 28 in the pound for the proof of pistols, and 34 for service. The proof bullet of the U. S. _musket_ made at Harper’s ferry in Virginia, the barrel of which is 3 feet 8³⁄₄ inches, is _one fifteenth_ of a pound; the service ball _one nineteenth_. The _Rifle_ of Harper’s ferry, the barrel of which is 2 feet 10 inches; the proof ball is _one twenty-eighth_ of a pound; the service ball is _one thirty-secondth_ part of a pound. See GUN and RIFLE.

_Hollow_ BULLETS, or shells, of a cylindrical shape. These have an opening and a fuze at the end, by which fire is communicated to the combustibles within, and an explosion takes place, similar to that occasioned by the blowing up of a mine.

_Chain_ BULLETS, are two balls which are joined together by a chain, at any given distance from each other.

_Branch_ BULLETS, two balls joined together by an iron bar.

_Two-headed_ BULLETS, sometimes called angles, are two halves of a bullet which are kept together by means of a bar or chain.

BULWARK, the ancient name for bastion or rampart, which words see.

BURDEN, BURTHEN, in a general sense, implies a load or weight, supposed to be as much as a man, horse, &c. can well carry. A sound healthful man can raise a weight equal to his own, can also draw and carry 50lb. a moderate distance. An able horse can draw 350lb. though in length of time 300 is sufficient. Hence all artillery calculations are made. One horse will draw as much as 7 men, and 7 oxen will draw as much as 11 or 12 horses. Burthen likewise in a figurative sense means impost, tax, &c.

BURGANET, or BURGONET, _Fr._ a kind of helmet used by the French.

BURIALS, as practised by the military, are as follows, in the British service, viz. The funeral of a field-marshal shall be saluted with 3 rounds of 15 pieces of cannon, attended by 6 battalions, and 8 squadrons.

That of a general, with 3 rounds of 11 pieces of cannon, 4 battalions, and 6 squadrons.

That of a lieutenant-general, with 3 rounds of 9 pieces of cannon, 3 battalions, and 4 squadrons.

That of a major-general, with 3 rounds of 7 pieces of cannon, 2 battalions, and 3 squadrons.

That of a brigadier-general, 3 rounds of 5 pieces of cannon, 1 battalion, and 2 squadrons.

That of a colonel, by his own battalion, or an equal number by detachment, with 3 rounds of small arms.

That of a lieutenant-colonel, by 300 men and officers, with 3 rounds of small arms.

That of a major, by 200 men and officers, with 3 rounds of small arms.

That of a captain, by his own company, or 70 rank and file, with 3 rounds of small arms.

That of a lieutenant, by 1 lieutenant, 1 serjeant, 1 drummer, 1 fifer, and 36 rank and file, with 3 rounds.

That of an ensign, by an ensign, a serjeant, and drummer, and 27 rank and file, with 3 rounds.

That of an adjutant surgeon, and quarter-master, the same party as an ensign.

That of a serjeant, by a serjeant, and 19 rank and file, with 3 rounds of small arms.

That of a corporal, musician, private man, drummer, and fifer, by 1 serjeant and 13 rank and file, with 3 rounds of small arms.