Part 112

OBSTACLES, in a military sense, are narrow passes, woods, bridges, or any other impediments, which present themselves when a battalion is marching to front or rear. These are passed, by the formation, march, and deployment of the close column. Such parts as are not interrupted still move on in front; such parts as are interrupted, double by divisions, as ordered, behind and adjoining a flank or flanks, and in this manner follow in close column in their natural order. As the ground opens they successively deploy, and again perfect the line. The columns are always behind the line, and march closed up. The formed part of the battalion, whether advancing or retiring, continues to move on at the ordinary pace, and in proportion as the obstacles increase or diminish, will the formed or column parts of the line increase or diminish.

The general attentions directed to be observed on these occasions are, that the columns formed shall be of sub-divisions, if the ground will admit. The first sub-division that is obliged to double, will be directed to which hand by the commander of the battalion, the others, as they successively double, will, in consequence, place themselves behind it, and behind each other, and the hand first doubled to, will be that which presents the opening most favorable to the subsequent march, and formation, and which the commanding officer will always hold in view, and order accordingly. The interrupted body will double to one or both flanks, according to circumstances, and the order it receives. Obstacles that impede a flank will occasion a single column to be formed from the flank towards the centre. Obstacles that impede the centre, or a central part of a wing, will, if considerable, occasion two columns to be formed, from the centre towards the flanks. The columns will follow a flank of such part of the line as is not impeded; and either in doubling into column, or extending into line, the rear divisions will conform to the movements of their then leading one. No part less than the front of the column doubles or moves up, and when half or more of a battalion must be thrown into one column, it will be ordered by companies.

OBSTACLES _whose fronts are parallel to the line_. When such occur, the divisions impeded must all at once double behind such one, or two, other divisions as clear them of the obstacle.

OBSTACLES _whose first points continue to increase as the line advances_. In these cases the doubling is successive, beginning with that division which is first interrupted, and continuing as it becomes necessary, till the column can advance in clear ground.

OBSTACLES _passed, or diminished_. When obstacles are of such a nature as to permit of the complete extension at once into line: the whole column performs it by the commands and deployments of the close column on the front division, which then makes part of the line. But when obstacles diminish by degrees only, then the divisions of the column must come up into line successively as the ground opens, and the remainder of the column must, in diminishing, shift toward the obstacle, in the same manner as it before shifted from it in increasing.

OBSTACLES _that are passed in presence of an enemy_. Under these circumstances if the battalion, in advancing, should be obliged to fire, it halts in the situation it is then in, executes such firings as are ordered, and again advances.

If the battalion, in retiring, is pressed by the enemy, the part in line will _halt! front!_ the part in column will move on till the last division arrives in line, and will then _halt, front_. The firing that is ordered, will be executed; and when it is again proper to retire, the whole will face about, the part in line will _march_, and the columns will also be put in march when the line arrives at their head.

OBSTACLES _whose points of opening are narrow, and continue so, more or less_. In such cases the interrupted division, will be ordered to face either to one or both flanks, and closely to follow in file such parts of the battalion as are not broken: the filing will increase as the obstacles increase, but as they diminish, file after file will successively and quickly move up to their place till the whole are again formed; and during this operation the leading file will always remain attached to the flank of the part in line.--The same rules that direct the doubling in column, direct the doubling by files; when a subdivision files, it will be from the flank only; when a company files, it may be from both flanks; and if a larger front than two companies is interrupted, it then doubles into column. Where the obstacles are of small extent, but frequently occurring, this mode is the readiest that can be applied in advancing; but in retiring it cannot be of use, if the enemy be at hand to press upon the battalion; and therefore the passing by column is to be looked upon as the general method. For further explanations on the important operations of passing obstacles, we refer our military readers to _Am. Mil. Lib._ Article RECONNOITRING.

OBSTINATE, in a military sense, determined, fixed in resolution.--Hence obstinate resistance.

OBSTINATELY. Persevering. The two armies fought so obstinately, that night only could separate the combatants.

OBSTINEMENT, _Fr._ Obstinately. Stubbornly, inflexibly, with unshaken determination.

S’OBSTINER, _Fr._ to persist in any thing.

OBSTRUCTION, any difficulty or impediment, opposing the operations of an army, &c.

OBTUS, _Fr._ Obtuse.

_Angle_ OBTUS, _Fr._ Obtuse angle.

OBTUSANGULAR, having angles larger than right angles.

OBUS, _Fr._ _Hobits._ _Howitzer._ A species of small mortar, resembling a mortar in every thing but the carriage, which is made in the form of that belonging to a gun, only shorter. It has been frequently used at sieges; and is well calculated to sweep the covert way, and to fire ricochet shots. They were usually loaded with cartouches. Belidor writes upon the subject at some length in his _Bombardier Francois_, page 39. See HOWITZER.

OCCASIO, _L._, _Opportunity_, among the Romans, an allegorical divinity, the goddess of time, who presides over the most favorable moment for success in any enterprise. She is represented stark naked, with a long lock of hair upon her forehead, and bald behind. And also standing on a wheel, with wings on her feet, and is said to turn herself very swiftly round; by which is intimated, that we should lay hold of the present opportunity. Among modern nations no people pay greater attention to the instruction which is conveyed by this allegory than the French do. It is common among them to say:--_L’occasion est chauve_. Occasion or opportunity is bald--Alluding to the Roman allegory; and in the same figure, _il faut prendre l’occasion par les cheveux_. You must seize time (by which is meant occasion or opportunity) by the forelock; meaning the forelock of hair alluded to.

OCCASION, _Fr._ has the same signification, in military matters, that affair bears among the French.

_Une_ OCCASION _bien chaude_, _Fr._ a warm contest, battle, or engagement.--It further means, as with us, the source from whence consequences ensue. _Les malheurs du peuple sont arrivés a l’occasion de la guerre_. The misfortunes of the people have been occasioned by the war, or the war has been the occasion of the people’s misfortunes. The French make a nice distinction which may hold good in our language, between cause and occasion, viz. _Il n’en est pas la cause--Il n’en est que l’occasion, l’occasion innocente._--He is not the cause, he is only the occasion, the innocent occasion of it. _Il s’est faché pour une legére occasion_; he took offence, or grew angry on a very slight occasion.

_Se servir de l’_OCCASION, _Fr._ to take advantage, or make a proper use of time and opportunity. A French writer has very properly observed, that to seize with dexterity occasions as they occur, is a certain proof of courage and ability, especially in the general of an army. Opportunity or occasion, according to Tacitus, is the mother of events. _Opportunos magnis conatibus transitas rerum._ One complete and decisive victory leads us to a multiplicity of enterprises and great designs, all of which grow out of the first triumph.

A full and decisive victory, by which the country is left entirely at the mercy of the conqueror, must necessarily throw the inhabitants into confusion, and open fresh avenues to conquest; for one opportunity or occasion well embraced and executed upon, becomes the source of many others. There is not, perhaps, in human contingencies any thing which spreads itself so rapidly, or ought to be so little neglected. An enterprise which grows out of another, though it be in reality more arduous to get through than the one which produced it, becomes more easy in its execution: and yet, how many brave and skilful generals have existed, who could not make a proper use of opportunity? In reading over their gallant exploits, one would be led to believe, that all their knowlege consisted in merely knowing how to fight. We have seen them, with unexampled intrepidity, doing every thing that man dares to do, in the field of battle: we have seen them make a decisive blow, and place victory within their grasp; and when they were in the actual possession of all they fought for, we have seen them suddenly relax, give their enemies time to breathe, and finally lose all the fruits of their victory. The courage and promptitude which they manifested in a decisive battle, were the effects of a transitory impulse which was soon wasted and extinguished.

Hannibal, so much celebrated for his bold enterprise against the Romans, was guilty of this error. After the battle of Cannæ it rested entirely with himself to march to Rome. He had only to follow up his first blow, to take advantage of the consternation of the Romans, and to pursue them to their capitol. By so doing he would have made use of the glorious _occasion_ which fortune had thrown into his hands by the first victory, and would not have been driven to the necessity of endeavoring to obtain the original object of his enterprise, by fighting several battles that proved abortive of it. Adherbal on this account, after having failed in his attempt to persuade Hannibal to pursue his first good fortune, and to march to the gates of Rome, is recorded to have used the following expression: _Vincere scis, Hannibal; sed victoriâ uti nescis_. Hannibal, thou knowest how to conquer, but thou dost not know how to make use of a victory.

Gustavus Adolphus made the same mistake. Had he, after having won the battle of Leipsic, hung upon the rear of the discomfited Imperialists, pushed and harassed them to the gates of Vienna, there is little doubt of the consequences which must have ensued.

The emperor Ferdinand was as weak in effective forces at the capital as the Romans were at Rome, and the same consternation prevailed among the inhabitants. Had Gustavus profited by his first success, and converted the means, which so glorious an occasion offered, into prompt and vigorous pursuit, he would not indeed have reaped additional laurels in the plains of Outzen, where he fell at the head of his victorious Swedes, but he must have reached Vienna, and there have dictated his own terms.

Carthalon, among the ancients, was on the contrary, an instance of how much may be done by acting up to circumstances, and by judiciously making use of fortune as occasions offer. He was not satisfied with having surprised the Roman fleet, taken off a considerable number of ships, and burned others, but he instantly availed himself of his first good fortune, attempted another enterprise, and succeeded.

The British generals who made war in the American revolution, were as unfortunate in their never taking proper advantage of occasion; their retreat from Princeton, and their subsequent stupor, while the American army of only 4000 men lay hutted at Valley Forge; while they held Philadelphia within 20 miles of them, with 17000 men, is a striking instance. An important occasion was also lost by them after the battle of Brandywine; where the American dispositions and subsequent retreat were alike unsuited to the occasion. The campaign was a series of the most extravagant blunders that can be conceived. The campaign that ended with the capitulation at York Town, was as brilliant on the part of the American arms, as on the English side eggregiously injudicious and unsuitable to the occasion.

OCCASIONAL, (_elle_, _Fr._) This adjective is used in a different sense among the French, to what it is with us, viz. _Cause occasionally_; any thing that occasions an event.

OCCIDENT, _Fr._ The west.

OCCUPE, _Fr._ to be taken possession of. _Les environs furent occupés par des troupes légéres_; the neighboring places were taken possession of by some light troops.

_To_ OCCUPY, is to take possession of any work or post.

OCTAEDRE, _Fr._ _Octahedron_, one of the five regular bodies which is terminated by eight equilateral equal triangles.

OCTAGON, (_Octogone_, _Fr._) a figure or polygon that has eight equal sides, which likewise form eight equal angles. The octagon, in fortification, is well calculated in its ground for the construction of large towns, or for such as have the advantage of neighboring rivers, especially if the engineer can so place the bastions, that the entrance and outlet of the rivers may be in some of the curtains. By means of this disposition no person could come in or go out of the garrison without the governor’s or commandant’s permission, as the centinels must have a full view from the flanks of the neighboring Bastions.

OCTAVION, (_one_, _Fr._) any male or female that is born of a quarteron and a white woman, or of a white man and a quarterone.

OCTONS, _Fr._ a mathematical instrument, which contains 45 degrees or the eighth part of a circle.

OCTOEDRICAL, having eight sides.

OCTOSTYLE, the face of a building containing eight columns.

ODA. The different corps or companies into which the janizaries are divided, bear this appellation. The word itself means a room, and the companies are so called from messing separately.

ODEN, ODIN, _or_ WODEN, a deity so called in ancient times among the Swedes, and Goths. He was their god of war in the same manner that they acknowleged _Thor_ to be their _Jupiter_, and _Freya_ their _Venus_.

ODOMETER, (_Odometre_, _Fr._) an instrument by which you may ascertain how much ground you go over on foot, or in conveyance.

OEIL, _Fr._ in architecture, any round aperture, which is made in a building.

OEIL _de dome_, _Fr._ an opening made at the top of an edifice.

OEIL _de bœuf_, _Fr._ a round window or aperture, which is made in a wall or roof. The black spot in the centre of a target is likewise called _œil de bœuf_, or bull’s eye.

OEIL _de pont_, _Fr._ the opening, or vacant space, under the arch of a bridge.

OEUVRE, _Fr._ in architecture this word admits of various significations in the French language, and may be connected with different prepositions, all of which determine the signification, viz.

_Dans_ OEUVRE, _Fr._ Within. _Trente toises de long dans œuvre_; signifies 30 toises in length within doors.

_Hors d’_OEUVRE, _Fr._ Without. _Un escalier hors d’œuvre_; a stair-case without doors.

_Sous_ OEUVRE, _Fr._ From the bottom. _Reprendre un mur sous œuvre_; to build up a wall from the foot or bottom.

_Dans_ OEUVRE _et hors d’_OEUVRE, within and without.

OIN, _or_ OING, _Fr._ Cart-grease, such as is used to the wheels of ordnance carriages, &c.

OFF, an adverb, which is frequently conjoined with verbs; and, in a military sense, is used as follows:

_To march_ OFF, to quit the ground on which you are regularly drawn up, for the purpose of going upon detachment, relieving a guard, or doing any other military duty.

_To tell_ OFF, to count the men composing a battalion or company, so as to have them readily and distinctly thrown into such proportions as suit military movements or evolutions.

OFFENCES. All acts, that are contrary to good order and discipline, omissions of duty, &c. may be called military offences. The principal ones are specified in the Articles of War. No officer or soldier can be tried twice for the same offence; unless in case of an appeal from a regimental to a general court-martial: nor can any officer or soldier be tried for any offence committed more than two years before the date of the warrant for trial; except in cases where the offenders were not amenable to justice in that period, when they may be brought to trial any time within two years after the impediment ceased.

OFFENSIVE _War_. Military acts of aggression constitute what is called an offensive war. Those who assail an opposite or adverse army, or invade the dominions of another power, are said to wage an offensive war.

OFFENSIVE _Weapons_, are such as are fit for the purpose of carrying on offensive war, as cannon, mortars, swords, pistols, musquets, &c.

OFFENSIVE _Fortification_. See APPROACHES, SIEGE, &c.

OFFICE, in a military sense, signifies any place or apartment which is fixed or appointed for officers, clerks, &c. to attend in, for the discharge of their respective employments; as war-office or office of the war department--adjutant and inspector’s office--commander in chief’s office--paymaster general’s office, &c. &c.

Department and board are sometimes synonymous terms. Sometimes the term office is inapplicable to places where military business is transacted, viz. Clothing department, board of general officers, &c. The word _conseil_ is used by the French in the latter sense, the term _bureau_ in almost all others.

OFFICE of the inspector-general.

OFFICE of the commissary-general of stores, &c. to the forces at home.

OFFICE of the military agent.

OFFICE of the superintendant of military stores.

OFFICE of the advocate-general.

OFFICE of the physician-general.

OFFICE of the comptroller. Since the commencement of the coalition wars, the whole system of conducting the extraordinary expences of armies serving abroad has undergone a careful revision in the British service. Among other wise suggestions it has been recommended, 1st. That no military officer should himself have a property, or interest, in any article which his duty obliged him to provide for the public service. The object of this suggestion has in some instances been fulfilled; but it still remains with the commander in chief, and with those persons particularly concerned with army matters, to recommend its adoption in the clothing of the different regiments, regular as well as militia. The property which the colonels manifestly hold in this article, exposes the most honorable character to unmerited imputations, and affords ample means to the base and selfish of growing rich at the expence of public virtue. 2. That no payment should be made by the military officer belonging to any department (such as quarter, or barrack master general, inspector of hospitals, commanding engineers, &c.) but that every expence should be paid by the deputy paymasters general, in pursuance of a warrant from the commander in chief. 3. That all vouchers, proving any payment, should be subject to a careful and speedy examination by persons appointed for the purpose, on the spot where the expence was incurred.

In the present war, the whole of the extraordinary expences of an army serving abroad, are conducted by the means of a commissary general, who receives and has charge of all provisions and stores sent for the use of the troops from this country; who purchases, or provides, under the direction of, or in concurrence with, the commander in chief (without whose authority no service can be performed, or expence incurred) such articles as may be more conveniently obtained on the spot, and who is responsible for all monies, provisions, or stores, whether actually used, damaged, lost, destroyed, or plundered, with the condition of procuring proper certificates to prove every mode of their consumption, before he can be discharged therefrom.

A commissary of accounts also attends each army where the numbers are of sufficient importance, with a proper establishment, for the purpose of examining and controlling accounts on the spot; Both acting under specific instructions.

All monies, for the ordinary services of the army, are obtained by the means of bills drawn by the deputy paymaster abroad on the paymaster general, which bills are negociated by the commissary general, who is obliged to note the rate of exchange on the bill.

All monies, for extraordinaries, are obtained by drafts of the commissary general on the treasury, which, on their arrival, are accepted, if drawn conformably to the rules laid down, as being in payment for services ordered by the commander in chief, and the value of which have been previously examined and ascertained by the commissaries of accounts on the spot.

The commissaries of accounts make returns of their examination; and on these documents the comptrollers of the army accounts found the best enquiry into the expenditure which the nature of the subject admits of.

The commissaries general and commissaries of accounts, are appointed by warrant under the king’s sign manual, directing them to obey all instructions given them for the execution of their duty by the lords commissioners of the treasury; which instructions, since the commencement of this war, have been prepared by the comptrollers of the army accounts, under the orders, and subjected to the inspection of the treasury. Instructions are also given by the secretary of state for the war department, to all commanding officers abroad, to conduct the service on which they are employed, with the utmost regard to public economy, and punctuality in their accounts.

The present establishment of this office is composed in the following manner:--

Two comptrollers at 1000_l._ per annum each.

One secretary, 700_l._ ditto.

_Civil Department._

One first accomptant and chief clerk 500_l._

One second ditto, 300_l._

One third ditto, salary not specified.

_Military Department._

One first clerk, one second clerk, one third clerk, salaries not specified.

One chamber keeper, one messenger, one necessary woman, salaries not specified.

OFFICE _of ordnance, or board of ordnance_ in the British service.--It belongs to the office of ordnance to supply all military stores for the army and navy; to defray the expence of the corps of artillery, corps of engineers, and other military corps attached to the ordnance service; and also the charge of repairing and building fortifications at home and abroad; excepting field works abroad, and excepting also those fortifications which commanders in chief may deem it expedient to erect without previous instructions from home; in which two cases the bills are paid by the treasury, and placed to account in the extraordinaries of the army. All contingent expences, attending ordnance stores, as well as camp equipage for the artillery, and the article of tents for the privates of the whole army, included in the payments of the ordnance.

The hire of vessels for the transportation of ordnance for foreign service, has, since the establishment of the transport board, been transferred to that office: and the building of barracks belongs now to the barrack department, except when barracks are ordered to be built within a fortification.

The master general, who, in his military character, is commander in chief over the artillery and engineers, has, in his civil capacity, the entire control over the whole ordnance department: he can alone do any act, which can otherwise, if he does not interpose, be done by the board. He can order the issue of money, but that order must be executed in the usual mode, by three board officers.