Part 9

313. #-ā-li-#, N. #-ā-li-s#: #rēg-āli-#, N. #rēg-āli-s#, _kingly_ (#rēg-#); #decemvir-āli-s#, _of a decemvir_ (#decemviro-#); #fāt-āli-s#, _fated_ (#fāto-#); #t-āli-s#, _such_ (stem #to-#, _that_); #qu-āli-s#, _as_ (#quo-#), #-ā-ri-#, N. #-ā-ri-s#, is used for #-āli-# if an #l# precedes (173): as, #mol-āri-#, N. #mol-āri-s#, _of a mill_ (#molā-#); #mīlit-āri-s#, _of a soldier_ (#mīlit-#). Neuters in #-āli-# and #-āri-# often become substantives (600): #fōc-āle#, _neckcloth_ (#fauci-#); #anim-al#, _breathing thing_ (#animā-#); #calc-ar#, _spur_ (#calci-#).

314. #-ī-li-#, N. #-ī-li-s#: #cīv-īli-#, N. #cīv-īli-s#, _of a citizen_ (#cīvi-#); #puer-ili-s#, _boyish_ (#puero-#). The neuter, as substantive, sometimes denotes the place where (266): #ov-īle#, _sheepfold_ (#ovi-#).

315. #-ē-li#, N. #-ē-li-s#: #fidē-li-#, N. #fidē-li-s#, _faithful_ (#fidē-#); #crūd-ēli-s#, _cruel_ (#crūdo-#); #patru-ēli-s#, _cousin_ (#patruo-#). #-ū-li-#, N. #-ū-li-s#: #tribū-li-#, N. #tribū-li-s#, _tribesman_ (#tribu-#).

316. The old participle suffix #-no-# (296) is sometimes added at once to noun stems, sometimes to other suffixes: thus, #-ā-no-#, #-ī-no-#; #-ti-no-#, #-tī-no-#; #-er-no-#, #-ur-no-#.

317. #-no-#, N. #-nu-s#, is added to stems formed with the comparative suffix #-ero-# or #-tero-# (347), denoting place: #super-no-#, N. #super-nu-s#, _above_; #inter-nu-s#, _internal_ (#inter#); #exter-nu-s#, _outside_; so, also, #alter-nu-s#, _every other_ (#altero-#); and to a very few substantives: as, #pater-nu-s#, _fatherly_ (#patr-#); #frāter-nu-s#, _brotherly_ (#frātr-#); #vēr-nu-s#, _of spring_ (#vēr-#). Also to cardinals, making distributives: as, #bī-nī#, _two by two_ (for #*dṷīnī#, #duo-#, 161).

318. #-ā-no-#, N. #-ā-nu-s# (202): #arcā-no-#, N. #arc-ānu-s#, _secret_ (#arcā-#); #Rōma-nu-s#, _of Rome_ (#Rōmā-#); #mont-ānu-s#, _of a mountain_ (#monti-#); #oppid-ānu-s#, _of a town_ (#oppido-#). #-i-āno-#: #Cicerōn-iāno-#, N. #Cicerōn-iānu-s#, _Cicero’s_. Rarely #-ā-neo-#: #mediterrā-neu-s#, _midland_ (#medio-#, #terrā-#).

319. #-ī-no-#, N. #-ī-nu-s# (202): #mar-īno-#, N. #mar-īnu-s#, _of the sea_; #repent-īnu-s#, _sudden_ (#repenti-#); oftenest added to names of living beings: as, #can-īnu-s#, _of a dog_ (#can-#); #dīv-īnu-s#, _of a god_ (#dīvo-#); #-ē-no-#: #lani-ēnu-s#, #ali-ēnu-s#. Also to proper names: as, #Plaut-īno-#, N. #Plaut-īnu-s#, _of Plautus_ (#Plauto-#); #Alp-īnu-s#, _Alpine_ (#Alpi-#).

320. #-ti-no-#, N. #-ti-nu-s#, is used in some adjectives of time: #crās-tinu-s#, _to-morrow’s_ (#crās-#); #diū-tinu-s#, _lasting_ (#diū#); #prīs-tinu-s#, _of aforetime_ (#prī-#, #prae#).

321. #-tī-no-#, N. #-tī-nu-s#, is used in a few words of place and time: #intes-tīno-#, N. #intes-tinu-s#, _inward_ (#intus#); #vesper-tīnu-s#, _at eventide_ (#vespero-#).

322. From words like #frāter-nus# (from #*fratr(i)-nus#, 111, _b_), #pater-nus#, #exter-nus#, #inter-nus#, arose a new suffix #-terno-#: as, #hes-ternus#, from the stem #hes-# (cf. #her-ī#, 154), and #-erno-# in #hodiernus#. From the adverb #*noctur# (νυκτωρ) was derived #noctur-nus#, by analogy to which #diurnus# was formed. Elsewhere the #-ur# of #-urnus# and the #-tur-# of #-turnus# belong to the stem: as, #ebur-nus#; #tacitur-nus#, from the agent #*taci-tor# (205).

(3.) #-bri-#, #-cri-#, #-tri-# (N. #-ber# or #-bri-s#, &c.).

323. #-bri-#, N. #-ber# or #-bri-s#: #salū-bri-#, N. #salū-ber#, _healthy_ (#salūt-#); #mulie-bri-s#, _womanly_ (#mulier-#).

324. #-cri-#, N. #-cer# or #-cri-s# (202): #volu-cri-#, N. #volu-cer#, _winged_ (#*volo-#, _flying_); #medio-cri-s#, _middling_ (#medio-#).

325. #-tri-#, N. #-ter# or #-tri-s#: #eques-tri-#, N. #eques-ter#, _of horsemen_ (#equit-#, 152); #sēmēs-tri-s#, _of six months_ (#sex#, #mēns-#). #-es-tri-# is used in a few words: #camp-ester#, _of fields_ (#campo-#); #silv-estri-s#, _of woods_ (#silvā-#).

(4.) #-co-# (N. #-cu-s#); #-ti-#, #-si-# (N. #-s#, #-si-s#).

326. #-co-# is often suffixed to #-ti-#, sometimes to #-es-ti-#; thus: #-ti-co-#, #-es-ti-co-#.

327. #-co-#, N. #-cu-s#: #cīvi-co-#, N. #cīvi-cu-s#, _of a citizen_ (#cīvi-#); #belli-cu-s#, _of war_ (#bello-#); #vīli-cu-s#, _bailiff_ (#vīllā-#). #-ā-co-#, #-ī-co-#, #-ū-co-# (202): #merā-cu-s#, #amī-cu-s#, #antī-cu-s#, #aprī-cu-s#, #postī-cu-s#, #pudī-cu-s#, #cadū-cu-s#. #-ti-co-#, N. #-ti-cu-s#: #rūs-tico-#, N. #rūs-ticu-s#, _of the country_ (#rūs-#). #-es-ti-co-#, N. #-es-ti-cu-s#: #dom-esticu-s#, _of a house_ (#domo-#, #domu-#).

328. #-ti-# or #-si-# denotes belonging to a place; usually #-ā-ti-#, #-ī-ti-#, #-es-ti-#, #-en-ti-#; #-ēn-si-#, or #-i-ēn-si-#.

329. #-ti-#, N. #-s#: #Tībur-ti-#, N. #Tībur-s#, _Tiburtine_ (#Tībur-#). #-ā-ti-#: #quoi-āti-#, N. #quoi-ā-s#, _what countryman?_ (#quoio-#); #Anti-ā-s#, _of Antium_ (#Antio-#); #optim-ātēs#, _good men and true_ (#optimo-#). #-ī-ti-#: #Samn-īti-#, N. #Samn-ī-s#, _Samnian_ (#Samnio-#). #-en-ti-#: #Vēi-enti-#, N. #Vēi-ēn-s#, _of Vei_ (#Vēio-#). #-es-ti-#, N. #-es-ti-s#: #agr-esti-#, N. #agr-esti-s#, _of the fields_ (#agro-#); #cael-esti-s#, _heavenly_ (#caelo-#).

330. #-ēn-si-#, N. #-ēn-si-s# (202), from appellatives of place or proper names of place: #castr-ēnsi-#, N. #castr-ēnsi-s#, _of a camp_ (#castro-#); #circ-ēnsi-s#, _of the circus_ (#circo-#); #Hispāni-ēnsi-s# _(temporarily) of Spain_. #-i-ēnsi-#: #Karthāgin-iēnsi-s#, _of Carthage_ (#Karthāgin-#).

III. SUPPLY.

331. The suffixes #-to-# or #-ōso-# are used to form adjectives denoting _Supplied_ or _Furnished with_: as,

STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.

barbā-to- barbātus, _bearded_ barbā-, N. barba, _beard_ ann-ōso- annōsus, _full of years_ anno-, N. annus, _year_

(1.) #-to-# (N. #-tu-s#); #-len-to-# (N. #-len-tu-s#).

332. #-to-#, the perfect participle suffix, is sometimes added at once to a noun stem, sometimes to other suffixes, thus: #-āto-#, #-īto-#, #-ēto-#, #-ūto-#, #-ento-#, #-lento-#.

333. #-to-#, N. #-tu-s#: #onus-to-#, N. #onus-tu-s#, _loaded_ (#onus-#); #vetus-tu-s#, _full of years_ (#*vetus-#, _year_); #iūs-tu-s#, _just_ (#iūs-#); #hones-tu-s#, _honourable_ (#*hones-#); #fūnes-tu-s#, _deadly_ (#fūnes-#). #-ā-to-#: #barbā-tu-s#, _bearded_ (#barbā-#); #dent-ātu-s#, _toothed_ (#denti-#); #-ī-to-#: #aurī-tu-s#, _long-eared_ (#auri-#); #-ū-to-#: #cornū-tu-s#, _horned_ (#cornu-#). #-en-to-#, N. #-en-tu-s#: #cru-ento-#, N. #cru-entu-s#, _all gore_ (#*cruenti-#, #*cruēre#). As substantive, #arg-entu-m# (_white metal_), _silver_; #flu-enta#, plural, _streams_ (#fluenti-#).

334. The neuter of stems in #-to-#, as a substantive, denotes the place where something, generally a plant, is found (266): #arbus-tu-m#, _vineyard_ (#arbos-#); commonly preceded by #-ē-#, forming #-ē-to-# (202), usually plural: #dūm-ēta#, _thorn-thickets_ (#dūmo-#); #murt-ēta#, _myrtle-groves_ (#murto-#).

335. #-len-to-#, N. #-len-tu-s# (202): #vīno-lento-#, N. #vīno-lentu-s#, _drunken_ (#vīno-#); #sanguin-olentu-s#, _all blood_ (#sanguin-#); #lūcu-lentu-s#, _bright_ (#lūci-#, 28); #pulver-ulentu-s#, _dusty_ (#pulver-#). A shorter form #-lenti-# is rare: #vi-olenti-#, N. #vi-olēn-s#, _violent_ (#vi-#); #op-ulēn-s#, _rich_ (#op-#).

(2.) #-ōso-# (N. #-ōsu-s#).

336. #-ōso-# (sometimes #-ōnso-#, #-ōsso-#), N. #-ōsu-s#, _full of_, is very common indeed, #-ōso-# is sometimes attached to other suffixes, thus: #-c-ōso-#, #-ul-ōso-#, #-ūc-ul-ōso-#.

337. #-ōso-#, N. #-ōsu-s#: #ann-ōso-#, N. #ann-ōsu-s#, _full of years_; #fōrm-ōnsu-s#, #fōrm-ōssu-s# or #fōrm-ōsu-s#, _shapely_ (#fōrmā-#); #perīcul-ōsu-s#, _with danger fraught_ (#perīculo-#); #mōr-ōsu-s#, _priggish_, _cross_ (#mōr-#); #calamit-ōsu-s#, _full of damage_ (#calamitāt-#, 179); #superstiti-ōsu-s#, _superstitious_ (#superstitiōn-#, 179); #frūctu-ōsu-s#, _fruitful_ (#frūctu-#, 116, _c_); #mont-uōsu-s#, _full of mountains_ (#monti-#, 202); #cūri-ōsu-s#, _full of care_ (#cūrā-#); #labōr-iōsu-s#, _toilsome_ (#labōr-#, 202).

338. #-c-ōso-#, N. #-c-ōsu-s#: #belli-cōso-#, N. #belli-cōsu-s#, _warlike_ (#bello-#, #bellico-#). #-ul-ōso-#, N. #-ul-ōsu-s#: #formīd-ulōso-#, N. #formid-ulōsu-s#, _terrible_ (#formīdin-#, 179). #-ūc-ul-ōso-#, N. #-ūc-ul-ōsu-s#: #met-ū-culoso-#, N. #met-ū-culōsu-s#, _skittish_ (#metu-#).

[Erratum: 338 ... #met-ū-culoso-# printed met-/-u- at line break]

IV. DIMINUTIVES.

339. Diminutives are formed from adjectives, as from substantives (267).

#-lo-#, N. #-lu-s#: #aureo-lo-#, N. #aureo-lu-s#, _all gold_, _of precious gold_, _of red red gold_, _good as gold_ (#aureo-#); #ebrio-lu-s#, _tipsy_ (#ebrio-#); #parvo-lu-s#, or #parvu-lu-s#, _smallish_ (#parvo-#); #frīgidu-lu-s#, _chilly_ (#frigido-#); #vet-ulus#, _little old_ (#vet-#); #tenellu-lu-s#, _soft and sweet_ (#tenello-#, #tenero-#); #pulchel-lus#, _sweet pretty_ (#pulchro-#); #bel-lu-s#, _bonny_ (#bono-#); #novel-lu-s#, _newborn_ (#*novolo-#, #novo-#). #-culo-#, N. #-culu-s#: #pauper-culo-#, N. #pauper-culu-s#, _poorish_ (#pauper-#); #levi-culu-s#, _somewhat vain_ (#levi-#).

340. A peculiar class of diminutives is formed by adding #-culo-# to the comparative stem #-ius-# (346): as, #nitidius-culo-#, N. #nitidius-culu-s#, _a trifle sleeker_ (#nitidius-#); #longius-culu-s#, _a bit longer_ (#longius-#).

341. Adverbs sometimes have a diminutive form: as, #bellē#, _charmingly_; #paullulum#, _a little bit_; #meliusculē#, _a bit better_ (340).

[Erratum: 339 ... _of red red gold_ text unchanged]

V. COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES.

342. Comparatives and superlatives are usually formed from the stem of the positive: as, #dignior#, _worthier_, #dignissimus#, _worthiest_, from #digno-#, stem of #dignus#. A few are formed directly from roots: thus, #maior#, _greater_, and #maximus#, _greatest_, are formed from the √#mag-#, and not from #magno-#, stem of #magnus#.

(1.) COMPARATIVE #-ior#, SUPERLATIVE #-issimus#.

343. The nominative of comparative adjectives ends usually in #-ior#, and that of superlatives in #-issimus#: thus,

COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE.

Masc. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fem. Neut. -ior -ior -ius -issimus -issima -issimum

POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE.

altus, _high_, altior, _higher_, altissimus, _highest_. trīstis, _sad_, trīstior, _sadder_, trīstissimus, _saddest_.

(2.) SUPERLATIVE #-rimus#.

344. Adjectives with the nominative in #-er# have the nominative of the superlative like the nominative of the positive with #-rimus# added (350): as,

POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE.

pauper, _poor_, pauperior, _poorer_, pauperrimus, _poorest_. ācer, _sharp_, ācrior, _sharper_, ācerrimus, _sharpest_.

#mātūrrimus# occurs once (Tac.), for #mātūrissimus#, positive #mātūrus#, _ripe_.

(3.) SUPERLATIVE #-limus#.

345.

humilis, difficilis, and facilis, similis, dissimilis, and gracilis,

have the nominative of the superlative in #-limus#, following #l# of the stem (350): as,

POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE.

humilis, _lowly_, humilior, _lowlier_, humillimus, _lowliest_.

THE COMPARATIVE SUFFIX.

346. The comparative suffix is #-iōs-#, which becomes in the singular, nominative masculine and feminine, #-ior# (154; 132), neuter nominative and accusative, #-ius# (107, _c_); in all other cases #-iōr-# (154).

347. Other comparative suffixes are #-ro-# or #-ero-#, and #-tro-# or #-tero-#, used in a few words, principally designating place: as, #sup-erī#, _the upper ones_, #īnferī#, _the nether ones_; #ex-terī#, _outsiders_, #posterī#, _after-generations_; #alter#, _the other_; #uter#, _whether?_ _which of the two?_ (for #*quo-ter#, 146); #dexter#, _right_.

348. Some words designating place have a doubled comparative suffix, #-er-iōr-#, or #-ter-iōr-#: as, #sup-er-ior#, _upper_, #īnferior#, _lower_. #ci-ter-ior#, _hither_, #dēterior# (_lower_), _worse_, #exterior#, _outer_, #interior#, _inner_, #posterior#, _hinder_, _after_, #ulterior#, _further_, #dexterior#, _more to the right_, #-is-tro-# is used in two words which have become substantives: #min-is-ter# (_inferior_), _servant_, and #magister# (_superior_), _master_.

THE SUPERLATIVE SUFFIX.

349. The common superlative suffix is #-issimo-#, nominative #-issimus#, with older #-issumo-#, nominative #-issumus# (28).

350. Stems which end in #-ro-#, #-ri-#, or #-li-# (344, 345) take the suffix #-issimo-# (cf. #-simo-#, 351) with syncope of its initial #i# (111) and assimilation of the final #l# or #r# (166, 8).

351. The suffix #-timo-# is further used in a few root superlatives: #ci-timus#, #dextimus#, #extimus#, #intimus#, #optimus#, #postumus#, and #ultimus#; and #-simo-# in #maximus#, #pessimus#, and #proximus#.

352. The suffix #-mo-# or #-imo-# is used in #sum-mo-#, N. #summus#, _highest_ (#sub#); #min-imo-#, N. #minimus#, _least_; #prīmus#, _first_, #septimus#, _seventh_, #decimus#, _tenth_. #-mo-# or #-imo-# is attached to #-is-# (135, 2) in #plūrimus# for #*plō-is-imo-s# (_fullest_), _most_ (99); and to #-rē-# or #-trē-#, possibly an adverbial form (705), in #suprēmus#, #extrēmus#, and #postrēmus#.

PECULIARITIES OF COMPARISON.

353. Some positives have a comparative or superlative, or both, from a different form of the stem: such are,

frūgī, _thrifty_, frūgālior, frūgālissimus. nēquam, _naughty_, nēquior, nēquissimus. iuvenis, _young_, iūnior, (nātū minimus). senex, _old_, senior, (nātū maximus). magnus, _great_, maior, maximus (351). beneficus, _kindly_, beneficentior, beneficentissimus. honōrificus, _complimentary_, honōrificentior, honōrificentissimus. magnificus, _grand_, magnificentior, magnificentissimus.

354. #iuvenior#, _younger_, is late (Sen., Plin., Tac.). #benevolēns#, _kindly_, #benevolentior#, #benevolentissimus#, and #maledīcēns#, _abusive_, #maledīcentior# (once each, Plaut.), #maledīcentissimus#, have usually as positive #benevolus# and #maledicus# respectively.

355. Some positives have a comparative or superlative, or both, from a wholly different stem: such are,

bonus, _good_, melior, optimus (351). malus, _bad_, peior, pessimus (351). multus, _much_, plūs (sing. Ne. only), plūrimus (352). parvus, _little_, minor, minimus (352).

#parvus# has rarely #parvissimus#.

356. Four comparatives in #-erior# or #-terior#, denoting place (348), have two forms of the superlative; the nominative masculine singular of the positive is not in common use:

exterior, extimus (351), or extrēmus (352), _outermost_. īnferior, īnfimus, or īmus, _lowest_. posterior, postumus (351), _lastborn_, or postrēmus (352), _last_. superior, summus (352), or suprēmus (352), _highest_.

357. Six, denoting place, have the positive only as an adverb or preposition:

cis, _this side_, citerior (348), citimus (351), _hitherest_. dē, _down_, dēterior (348), dēterrimus, _lowest_, _worst_. in, _in_, interior (348), intimus, _inmost_. prae, _before_, prior, prīmus (352), _first_. prope, _near_, propior, proximus (351), _nearest_. uls, _beyond_, ulterior (348), ultimus (351), _furthest_.

#ōcior#, _swifter_, #ōcissimus#, has no positive.

358. These have a superlative, but no comparative: #bellus#, _pretty_, #falsus#, _false_, #inclutus#, _famed_, #invictus#, _unconquered_, #invītus#, _unwilling_, #meritus#, _deserving_, #novus#, _new_; #vetus#, #veterrimus#, _old_, #sacer#, #sacerrimus#, _sacred_, #vafer#, #vaferrimus#, _sly_; #malevolus#, #malevolentissimus# (twice, Cic.), _spiteful_; #maleficus#, #maleficentissimus# (once, Suet.), _wicked_, #mūnificus#, #mūnificentissimus# (inscrr.; Cic. once), _generous_, #mīrificus#, #mīrificissimus# (twice, Acc., Ter.), _strange_. Plautus has #ipsissumus#, _his very self_.

359. Most primitives in #-ilis# and #-bilis# (292, 294), have a comparative, but no superlative; but these have a superlative: #facilis# and #difficilis# (345), _easy_ and _hard_, #ūtilis#, _useful_; also #fertilis#, _productive_, #amābilis#, _lovable_, #mōbilis#, _movable_, #nōbilis#, _well known_.

360. Many adjectives have no suffixes of comparison, and supply the place of these by #magis#, _more_, and #maximē#, _most_: as, #mīrus#, _strange_, #magis mīrus#, #maximē mīrus#. Many adjectives, from their meaning, do not admit of comparison.

[Erratum: 358 ... (inscrr.; Cic. once), _generous_, _generous_.]

COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE ADVERBS.

361. Adverbs derived from adjectives have as their comparative the accusative singular neuter of the comparative adjective; the superlative is formed like that of the adjective, but ends in #-ē#: as,

altē, _on high_, altius, altissimē. ācriter, _sharply_, ācrius, ācerrimē. facile, _easily_, facilius, facillimē.

362. An older superlative ending, #-ēd# for #-ē#, occurs in an inscription of 186 B.C.: FACILVMED, i.e. #facillimē#. A few adverbs have superlatives in #-ō# or #-um#: as, #meritissimō#, _most deservedly_; #prīmō#, _at first_, #prīmum#, _first_; #postrēmō#, _at last_, #postrēmum#, _for the last time_.

363. If the comparison of the adjective has peculiarities, they are retained in the adverb likewise: as, #bene#, _well_, #melius#, #optimē#; #male#, _ill_, #peius#, #pessimē#; #multum#, _much_, #plūs#, #plūrimum#; #mātūrē#, _betimes_, #mātūrius#, #mātūrissimē# (Cic., Plin.), or #mātūrrimē# (Cic., Caes., Sall., Tac.). #ōcius#, _swifter_, no positive, #ōcissimē#. #minus#, _less_, is formed by the nominal suffix #-es-# (236), from √#min-# (#minuō#); for #magis#, _more_, see 135, 2. In poetry #magis# sometimes becomes #mage#, as if neuter of an adjective in #-i-#.

364. A few adverbs not derived from adjectives are compared: as, #diū#, _long_, #diūtius#, #diūtissimē#; #saepe#, _often_, #saepius#, #saepissimē#; #nūper#, _lately_, no comparative, #nūperrimē#; #secus#, _otherwise_, #sētius#, _the less_; #temperī#, _betimes_, #temperius#, _earlier_, no superlative.

[Erratum: 363 ... #ōcius#, _swifter_, no positive; #ōcissimē#. positive.]

(B.) FORMATION OF DENOMINATIVE VERBS.

365. Denominative verb stems have present infinitives in #-āre#, #-ēre#, or #-īre# (#-ārī#, #-ērī#, or #-īrī#), and are formed from noun stems of all endings: as,

VERB. FROM NOUN.

fugā-re, _rout_ fugā-, N. fuga locā-re, _place_ loco-, N. locus nōminā-re, _name_ nōmin-, N. nōmen levā-re, _lighten_ levi-, N. levis sinuā-re, _bend_ sinu-, N. sinus albē-re, _be white_ albo-, N. albus miserē-rī, _pity_ misero-, N. miser flōrē-re, _blossom_ flōr-, N. flōs sordē-re, _be dirty_ sordi-, N. sordēs pūnī-re, _punish_ poenā-, N. poena condī-re, _season_ condo-, N. condus custōdī-re, _guard_ custōd-, N. custōs vestī-re, _dress_ vesti-, N. _vestis_ gestī-re, _flutter_ gestu-, N. _gestus_

366. These present verb stems are formed by adding the suffix #-i̭o-#, #-i̭e-# to the noun stem: as #*fugā-i̭ō#, _I flee_; the #i̭# between two vowels was dropped (153, 2) and the final vowel of noun stem was often contracted with the ending (118, 3). The noun stem ending is often slightly modified.

367. In a half a dozen denominatives from stems in #-u-# the #u# of the noun stem remains without modification, and is not contracted with the variable vowel (116, _c_): these are, #acuere#, _sharpen_ (#acu-#), #metuere#, _fear_, #statuere#, _set_, #tribuere#, _assign_; #arguere#, _make clear_, #bātuere#, _beat_.

368. Verbs in #-āre# are by far the most numerous class of denominatives; they are usually transitive; but deponents often express condition, sometimes occupation: as, #dominārī#, _lord it_, _play the lord_; #aquārī#, _get oneself water_. Most verbs in #-īre# also are transitive; those in #-ēre# usually denote a state: as, #calēre#, _be warm_; but some are causative: as, #monēre#, _remind_.

369. Many denominative verbs in #-āre# contain a noun suffix which is not actually found in the noun itself; such suffixes are: #-co-#, #-cin-#, #-lo-#, #-er-#, #-ro-#, #-to-#, &c.: as,

#-co-#: #albi-cāre#, _be white_ (#*albi-co-#); #velli-cāre#, _pluck_ (#*velli-co-#, _plucker_). #-cin-#: #latrō-cinārī#, _be a robber_ (#latrōn-#); #sermō-cinārī#, _discourse_ (#sermōn-#). #-lo-#: #grātu-lārī#, _give one joy_ (#*grātu-lo-#); #vi-olāre#, _harm_ (#*vi-olo-#); #heiu-lāri#, _cry_ ‘#heia#’ (#*heiu-lo-#). #-er-#: #mod-erārī#, _check_ (#*mod-es-#, 236). #-ro-#: #tole-rāre#, _endure_ (#*tole-ro-#); #flag-rāre#, _blaze_ (#*flag-ro-#). #-to-#: #dēbili-tāre#, _lame_ (#*dēbili-to-#); #dubi-tāre#, _doubt_ (#*dubi-to-#).

370. Many denominatives in #-āre# are indirect compounds (377), often from compound noun stems which are not actually found. So, particularly, when the first part is a preposition, or the second is from the root #fac-#, _make_, #ag-#, _drive_, _do_, or #cap-#, _take_: as,

#opi-tul-ārī#, _bear help_ (#opitulo-#); #suf-fōc-āre#, _suffocate_ (#*suf-fōc-o-#, #fauci-#); #aedi-fic-āre# (_housebuild_), _build_ (#*aedific-# or #*aedifico-#, _housebuilder_); #sīgni-fic-āre#, _give token_ (#*sīgnifico-#); #fūm-ig-āre#, _make smoke_ (#*fūmigo-#, _smoker_, #fūmo-#, √#ag-#); #nāv-ig-āre#, _sail_, and #rēm-ig-āre#, _row_ (#nāvi-#, _ship_, and #rēmo-#, _oar_); #mīt-ig-āre#, _make mild_ (#mīti-#); #iūr-ig-āre#, commonly #iūr-g-āre#, _quarrel_ (#iūr-#); #pūr-ig-āre#, commonly #pūr-g-āre#, _clean_ (#pūro-#); #gnār-ig-āre#, _tell_ (#gnāro-#, #narrāre#, 169, 2; 133, 1); #anti-cip-āre#, _take beforehand_ (#*anticipo-#, #ante#, √#cap-#); #oc-cup-āre#, _seize_ (#*occupo-#); #re-cup-er-āre#, _get back_ (#*recupero-#).

371. Many verbs in #-tāre# (#-sāre#), or #-tārī# (#-sārī#), express frequent, intense, or sometimes attempted action. These are called _Frequentatives_ or _Intensives_; they are formed from perfect participle stems; but stems in #-ā-to-# become #-i-to-#: as,

#cant-āre#, _sing_ (#canto-#); #cess-āre#, _loiter_ (#cesso-#); #amplex-ārī#, _embrace_ (#amplexo-#); #habit-āre#, _live_ (#habito-#); #pollicit-āri#, _make overtures_ (#pollicito-#); #dormīt-āre#, _be sleepy_ (#dormīto-#); #neg-itāre#, _keep denying_ (for #*negā-tāre#, with suffix #-i-tāre#, 910).

372. Some frequentatives in #-tāre# are formed from the present stem of a verb in #-ere#; the formative vowel before #-tāre# becomes #i#: as,

#agi-tāre#, _shake_ (#age-re#); #flui-tāre#, _float_ (#flue-re#); #nōsci-tāre#, _recognize_ (#nōsce-re#); #quaeri-tāre#, _keep seeking_ (#quaere-re#); #scīsci-tārī#, _enquire_ (#scīsce-re#); #vēndi-tāre#, _try to sell_ (#vēnde-re#).

373. A few frequentatives add #-tā-# to the perfect participle stem: as,

#ācti-tāre#, _act often_ (#ācto-#); #facti-tāre#, _do repeatedly_ (#facto-#); #lēcti-tāre#, _read again and again_ (#lēcto-#); #ūncti-tāre#, _anoint often_ (#ūncto-#). From a frequentative another frequentative is sometimes derived: as, #dict-āre#, _dictate_, #dicti-tāre#, _keep asserting_ (#dicto-#).

374. Some verbs are found only as frequentatives: as, #gust-āre#, _taste_ (#*gusto-#, √#gus-#, _taste_); #put-āre#, _think_ (#puto-#, √#pu-#, _clean_); #aegrōt-āre#, _be ill_ (#aegrōto-#).

375. A few verbs in #-uriō#, #-urīre#, express desire; such are called _Desideratives_: as, #ēss-urīre# or #ēs-urīre#, _want to eat_ (#edere#, #ēsse#). A few in #-ssō#, #-ssere#, express earnest action; such are called _Meditatives_: as, #lacē-ssō#, #lacē-ssere#, _provoke_.

[Erratum: 365 (table) ... albē-re, _be white_ albo-, N. albus N albus]

COMPOSITION.

376. In compounds, the fundamental word is usually the second, which has its meaning qualified by the first.