Part 7

190. Many nouns are formed from the present stems of verbs, which take the place of roots. Stems thus used are mostly those of verbs in #-āre# and #-īre#.

Thus, from #ōrā-#, stem of #ōrāre#, _speak_, are formed #ōrā-tor#, _speaker_, and #ōrā-tiō#, _speech_; from #audī-#, stem of #audīre#, _hear_, are formed #audī-tor#, _hearer_, and #audī-tiō#, _hearing_.

191. Verbs in #-ēre#, and those in #-āre# and #-īre# in which the #ā# or #ī# is confined to the present system (868, 874) usually have parallel nouns formed directly from a root: as,

#doc-tor#, _teacher_, #doc-umentum#, _lesson_, #doc-ilis#, _teachable_ (√#doc-#, #docēre#); #sec-tor#, _cutter_ (√#sec-#, #secāre#); #dom-itor#, _tamer_, #dom-inus#, _master_, #dom-itus#, _tamed_ (√#dom-#, #domāre#); #sarc-ina#, _package_ (√#sarc-#, #sarcīre#).

192. But a noun is sometimes exceptionally formed from the present stem of a verb in #-ēre#: as, #monē-ta#, _mint_ (#monēre#); #acē-tum#, _vinegar_ (#acēre#); #virē-tum#, _a green_ (#virēre#); #suādē-la#, _persuasion_ (#suādēre#); #habē-na#, _rein_ (#habēre#); #egē-nus#, _needy_ (#egēre#); #verē-cundus#, _shamefast_ (#verērī#); #valē-tūdō#, _health_ (#valēre#).

193. Verbs in #-ere#, and particularly such as have a present in #-nō#, #-scō#, #-tō# or #-iō# (832), usually have their parallel nouns formed directly from a root: as,

#vic-tor#, _conqueror_ (√#vic-#, #vincere#); #incrē-mentum#, _growth_ (√#crē-#, #crēscere#); #pul-sus#, _a push_ (√#pol-#, #pellere#).

194. Sometimes, however, nouns are formed from such verb stems, and not from roots: as, #lecti-stern-ium#, _a couch-spreading_ (#sternere#, √#ster-#, #strā-#); #vinc-ibilis#, _conquerable_ (#vincere#, √#vīc-#); #pāsc-uum#, _pasture_ (#pāscere#, √#pā-#); #pect-en#, _comb_ (#pectere#, √#pec-#); #fall-āx#, _deceitful_ (#fallere#, √#fal-#).

STEMS.

195. A STEM is that part of a word which contains its meaning, and is either a root alone or more commonly a root with an addition called a _Formative Suffix_.

Thus, in the word #ducis#, _leader’s_, the stem, which is identical with the root #duc-#, means _leader_; a root thus serving as a stem is called a _Root Stem_; in #ductōris#, _leader’s_, the stem is formed by the formative suffix #-tōr-#, denoting the agent, attached to the √#duc-#.

196. New stems are formed by adding a suffix to a stem. Thus, from #ōrātōr-#, _speaker_, is formed by the addition of the suffix #-io-#, a new stem #ōrātōr-io-#, N. #ōrātōrius#, _speaker’s_.

197. The noun has usually only one form of the stem. The verb has different stems to indicate mood and tense; these stems are all based on two principal tense stems, the present and the perfect active.

PRIMITIVES AND DENOMINATIVES.

198. I. A stem or word formed directly from a root or a verb stem is called a _Primitive_. II. A stem or word formed from a noun stem is called a _Denominative_.

(_a._) Primitives: from √#rēg-#, #reg-#, _guide_: #rēx#, stem #rēg-#, _king_; #rēgnum#, stem #rēg-no-#, _kingdom_; #rēctus#, stem #rēc-to-#, _guided_; #regere#, stem #reg-e-#, _guide_. From #ōrā-#, stem of #ōrāre#, _speak_: #ōrātor#, stem #ōrā-tōr-#, _speaker_; #ōrātiō#, stem #ōrā-tiōn-#, _speech_.

(_b._) Denominatives: from noun stem #rēg-#, _king_: #rēgīna#, stem #rēg-īnā#, _queen_; #rēgius#, stem #rēg-io-#, #rēgālis#, stem #rēg-āli-#, _royal_. From #ōrātiōn-#, _speech_: #ōrātiūncula#, stem #ōrātiūn-culā-#, _little speech_. From #rēg-no-#, _kingdom_: #rēgnāre#, stem #rēgnā-#, _to rule_. From #iūs#, _law_: #iūrāre#, _swear_, stem #iūrā# (154).

[Errata: 198a ... #ōrātor#, stem #ōrā-tōr-# #ōrā tōr-# with invisible hyphen 198b ... #iūrāre#, _swear_, stem #iūrā# _stem_ #iūrā# in italics]

(A.) FORMATION OF THE NOUN.

WITHOUT A FORMATIVE SUFFIX.

199. Some roots are used as noun stems: as, #duc-#, N. #dux#, _leader_ (√#duc-#, _lead_); #rēg-#, N. #rēx#, _king_ (√#rēg-#, _guide_); particularly at the end of a compound: as, #con-iug-#, N. #coniūnx#, _yoke-fellow_, _spouse_ (#com-#, √#jug-#, _yoke_); #tubi-cin-#, N. #tubicen#, _trumpeter_ (#tubā-#, √#can-#, _play_).

WITH A FORMATIVE SUFFIX.

200. SIMPLE formative suffixes are vowels: as, #-ā-#, #-o-#, #-i-#, #-u-#; also #-io-#, #-uo-#, (#-vo-#); or such little syllables as #-mo-#, #-min-#; #-ro-#, #-lo-#; #-ōn-#; #-no-#, #-ni-#, #-nu-#; #-to-#, #-ti-#, #-tu-#; #-ter-#, #-tōr-#; #-unt-# (#-nt-#); #-es-# (#-er-#), #-ōr-#; these syllables sometimes have slight modifications of form. COMPOUND suffixes consist of one or more simple suffixes attached to a simple suffix: as, #-tōr-io-#, #-ti-mo-#, &c., &c.

201. The following are examples of noun stems formed from roots or verb stems by simple suffixes added:

STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.

fug-ā- fuga, _flight_ +fug-+, _fly_ fīd-o- fīdus, _trusty_ +fīd-+, _trust_ ac-u- acus, _pin_ +ac-+, _point_ od-io- odium, _hate_ +od-+, _hate_ pluv-iā- pluvia, _rain_ +plov-+, _wet_ ar-vo- arvom, _tilth_ +ar-+, _till_ al-vo- alvos, _belly_ +al-+, _nurture_ sal-vo- salvos, _safe_ +sal-+, _safe_ fā-mā- fāma, _tale_ +fā-+, _tell_ teg-min- tegmen, _cover_ +teg-+, _cover_ sel-lā- sella, _seat_ +sed-+, _sit_ err-ōn- errō, _stroller_ +errā-+, _stroll_ som-no- somnus, _sleep_ +sop-+, _sleep_ plē-no- plēnus, _full_ +plē-+, _fill_ rēg-no- rēgnum, _realm_ +rēg-+, _guide_ da-to- datus, _given_ +da-+, _give_ lec-to- lectus, _bed_ +leg-+, _lie_ gen-ti- gēns, _race_ +gen-+, _beget_ sta-tu- status, _stand_ +sta-+, _stand_ rēc-tōr- rēctor, _ruler_ +rēg-+, _guide_ e-unt-, iēns, _going_ +i-+, _go_ rege-nt- regēns, _guiding_ +rege-+, _guide_ gen-er- genus, _race_ +gen-+, _beget_ fur-ōr- furor, _madness_ +fur-+, _rave_

202. Formative suffixes are often preceded by a vowel, which in many instances is a stem vowel, real or presumed; in others, the vowel has come to be regarded as a part of the suffix itself.

Thus, #-lo-#: #fīlio-lo-#, N. #fīlio-lu-s#, _little son_ (#fīlio-#); #hortu-lu-s#, _little garden_ (#horto-#, 105, _h_); but #-ulo-#: #rēg-ulu-s#, _petty king_ (#rēg-#); #ger-ulu-s#, _porter_ (√#ges-#, _bear_), #-ci-#: #pugnā-ci-#, N. #pugnā-x#, _full of fight_ (#pugnā-re#); but #-āci-#: #fer-āx#, _productive_ (√#fer-#, _bear_), #-to-#: #laudā-to-#, N. #laudā-tu-s#, _praised_ (#laudā-re#); but #-āto-#: #dent-ātus#, _toothed_ (#denti-#). #-tu-#: #equitā-tu-#, N. #equitā-tu-s#, _cavalry_ (#equitā-re#); but #-ātu-#: #sen-ātu-s#, _senate_ (#sen-#). #-lā-#: #suādē-lā-#, N. #suādē-la#, _persuasion_ (#suādē-re#, 192); but #-ēlā-#: #loqu-ēla#, _talk_ (√#loqu-#, _speak_). #-tāt-#: #cīvi-tāt-#, N. #cīvi-tā-s#, _citizenship_ (#cīvi-#); but #-itāt-#: #auctōr-itā-s#, _authority_ (#auctōr-#). #-cio-#: #aedīli-cio-#, N. #aedīli-ciu-s#, _of an aedile_ (#aedīli-#); but #-icio-#: #patr-iciu-s#, _patrician_ (#patr-#). #-timo-#: #fīni-timo-#, N. #fīni-timu-s#, _bordering_ (#fīni-#); but #-itimo-#: #lēg-itimu-s#, _of the law_ (#lēg-#).

203. There are many formative suffixes of nouns. The commonest only can be named, and these may be conveniently grouped as below, by their meanings. Compound suffixes are arranged with reference to the last element of the suffix: thus, under the adjective suffix #-io-# (304) will be found #-c-io-#, #-īc-io-#, #-tōr-io-#, and #-ār-io-#. In many instances it is difficult to distinguish between simple and compound suffixes.

[Errata: 201 (table) ... fā-mā- final - missing or invisible e-unt-, _anomalous comma may be intentional (this and following word are both participles)_]

I. THE SUBSTANTIVE.

(A.) PRIMITIVES.

I. THE AGENT.

204. The suffixes #-tōr-#, #-o-#, #-ā-#, #-lo-#, and #-ōn-#, are used to denote the _Agent_: as,

STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.

lēc-tōr- lēctor, _reader_ √+lēg-+, _read_ scrīb-ā- scrība, _writer_ √+scrīb-+, _write_ fig-ulo- figulus, _potter_ √+fig-+, _mould_ err-ōn- errō, _stroller_ errā-re, _stroll_

(1.) #-tōr-# (N. #-tor#).

205. #-tōr-#, N. #-tor#, or #-sōr-#, N. #-sor# (159, 202), is the commonest suffix of the agent; the feminine is #-trī-ci-#, N. #-trī-x#. #-tōr-# is sometimes used in a present sense, of action repeated or occurring at any time, and sometimes in a past sense.

206. (_a._) #-tōr-# (#-sōr-#), in the present sense, often denotes one who makes a regular business of the action of the root or verb.

#ōrā-tōr-#, N. #ōrā-tor#, _spokesman_, _speaker_ (#ōrā-re#); #lēc-tor#, _reader_ (√#leg-#, _read_). Workmen and tradesmen: #arā-tor#, _ploughman_, #pās-tor#, _shepherd_, #pīc-tor#, _painter_, #sū-tor#, _shoemaker_. Semi-professional: #captā-tor#, _legacy-hunter_, #dēlā-tor#, _professional informer_. Government officials: #cēn-sor#, _appraiser_, _censor_, #imperā-tor#, _commander_, #prae-tor#, (_leader_), _praetor_, #dictā-tor#, #līc-tor#. Of the law: #āc-tor#, _manager_, #accūsā-tor#, _accuser_, #spōn-sor#, _bondsman_, #tū-tor#, _guardian_. From presumed verb stems (202): #sen-ātor#, _senator_ (#sen-#); #viā-tor#, _wayfarer_ (#viā-#); #fundi-tor#, _slinger_ (#fundā-#). #-tro-#, N. #-ter#, has the meaning of #-tōr-#: as, #aus-tro-#, N. #aus-ter# (_scorcher_), _south-wester_ (√#aus-#, _burn_).

207. In the present sense #-tōr-# (#-sōr-#) is also used to indicate permanent character, quality, capability, tendency, likelihood: as, #bellā-tor#, _a man of war_, _warlike_; #dēlīberā-tor#, _a man of caution_; #cessā-tor#, _a loiterer_; #dērī-sor#, _a mocker_, _ironical_; #cōnsūmp-tor#, _apt to destroy_, _destructive_; #aedificā-tor#, _building-mad_.

208. (_b._) #-tōr-# (#-sōr-#), in a perfect sense, is used particularly in old Latin, or to denote an agent who has acquired a permanent name by a single conspicuous action. In this sense it usually has a genitive of the object, or a possessive pronoun: thus,

#castīgā-tor meus#, _my mentor_, or _the man who has upbraided me_; #olīvae inven-tor#, _the deviser of the olive_ (Aristaeus); #reper-tor vītis#, _the author of the vine_ (Bacchus); #patriae līberā-tōrēs#, _the emancipators of the nation_.

(2.) #-o-# (N. #-u-s#), #-ā-# (N. #-a#); #-lo-# (N. #-lu-s#); #-ōn-# (N. #-ō#).

209. #-o-# and #-ā-# stems may denote vocation or class; many are compounds. #-o-#, N. #-u-s#: #coqu-o-#, N. #coqu-o-s# or #coc-u-s#, _cook_ (√#coqu-#, _cook_); #causidic-u-s#, _pleader_ (#causā-#, √#dic-#, _speak_). #-ā-#, N. #-a#: #scrīb-ā-#, N. #scrīb-a#, _clerk_ (√#scrīb-#, _write_); #agricol-a#, _husbandman_ (#agro-#, √#col-#, _till_).

210. #-u-lo-#, N. #-u-lu-s# (202): #ger-ulo-#, N. #ger-ulu-s#, _bearer_ (√#ges-#, _bear_); #fig-ulu-s#, _potter_ (√#fig-#, _shape_, _mould_).

211. #-ōn-#, N. #-ō-#: #err-ōn-#, N. #err-ō#, _stroller_ (#errā-re#); especially in compounds: #praed-ō#, _robber_ (#praedā-rī#); #praec-ō# for #*praevocō#, _herald_ (#prae-vocā-re#); #combib-ō#, _fellow-drinker_ (#com-#, √#bib-#, _drink_).

II. THE ACTION.

212. The suffixes #-ā-#, #-io-#, #-iā-#; #-min-#; #-i-ōn-#, #-ti-ōn-#; #-lā-#; #-mā-#, #-nā-#; #-tā-#, #-tu-#; #-er-#, #-or-#, #-ōr-#, are used to denote the _Action_: as,

STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM. od-io- odium, _hate_ √+od-+, _hate_ āc-tiōn- āctiō, _action_ √+āg-+, _do_ ques-tu- questus, _complaint_ √+ques-+, _complain_ fur-ōr- furor, _rage_ √+fur-+, _rave_

213. Words denoting action (1470) in a substantive form have a wide range of meaning; they may denote, according to the connection, action intransitive, transitive, or passive, complete or incomplete; if the verb denotes condition or state, the word of action often comes very near to denominatives of quality; furthermore the idea of action is often lost, and passes over to result, concrete effect, means or instrument, or place.

(1.) #-ā-# (N. #-a#); #-io-# (N. #-iu-m#); #-iā-# (N. #-ia#), #-iē-# (N. #-iē-s#).

214. #-ā-#, N. #-a#, is rare in words of action: #fug-ā-#, N. #fug-a#, _flight_ (√#fug-#, _fly_); most words are concrete: #mol-a#, _mill_ (√#mol-#, _grind_); #tog-a#, _covering_ (√#teg-#, _cover_).

215. #-ūr-ā-#, N. #-ūr-a#, is rare: #fig-ūrā-#, N. #fig-ūra#, _shape_ (√#fig-#, _shape_).

216. #-tūr-ā-#, N. #-tūr-a#, or #-sūr-ā-#, N. #-sūr-a# (159, 202), akin to the agent in #-tōr-# (#-sōr-#): #armā-tūrā-#, N. #armā-tūra#, _equipment_ (#armā-re#); #pīc-tūra#, _painting_, i.e., _act of painting_ or _picture_ (√#pig-#, _paint_). Words parallel with official personal names (206) denote office: #cēn-sūra#, _taxing_, _censor’s office_ (cf. #cēnsōr-#); #prae-tūra#, _praetorship_ (cf. #praetōr-#).

217. #-io-#, N. #-iu-m#, sometimes denotes the effect or the object. The line cannot always be drawn very sharply between these stems in #-io-# (many of which may be formed through a presumed noun stem), and denominatives in #-io-# (249).

218. (_a._) #-io-# is rarely suffixed to simple roots or verb stems: #od-io-#, N. #od-iu-m#, _hate_, _hateful thing_, _hateful conduct_ (√#od-#, _hate_); some words become concrete: #lab-iu-m#, _lip_ (√#lab-#, _lick_).

219. (_b._) Most primitives in #-io-# are compounds: as, #adag-iu-m#, _proverb_ (#ad#, √#ag-#, _speak_); #ingen-iu-m#, _disposition_ (in, √#gen-#, _beget_); #dīscid-iu-m#, _separation_, #exscid-iu-m#, _destruction_ (#dī-#, #ex#, √#scid-#, _cleave_); #incend-iu-m#, _conflagration_ (in, √#cand-#, _light_); #obsequ-iu-m#, _compliance_ (#ob-#, √#sequ-#, _follow_); #conloqu-iu-m#, _parley_ (#com-#, √#loqu-#, _talk_); #obsid-iu-m#, _siege_ (#ob#, √#sed-#, _sit_).

220. #-t-io-#, N. #-t-iu-m#: #spa-tio-#, N. #spa-tiu-m#, _stretch_ (√#spa-#, _span_, _stretch_); #sōlsti-tiu-m#, _sun-stand_, _solstice_ (#sōl-#, √#sta-#, _stand_); #ini-tiu-m#, _a beginning_ (#in#, √#i-#, _go_).

221. #-iā-#, N. #-ia#: #fur-iā-#, N. #fur-iae#, plural, _ravings_, _madness_ (√#fur-#, _rave_); #pluvia#, _rain_ (√#pluv-#, _rain_). Most stems in #-iā-# are compounds, used in the plural only, often with concrete or passive meaning: _dēlic-iae_, _allurements_, _pet_ (#dē#, √#lac-#, _allure_); #excub-iae#, _patrol_ (#ex#, √#cub-#, _lie_).

222. #-iē-#, N. #-iē-s#, a variation of #-iā-#, usually denotes result (604): #ser-iē-#, N. #ser-iē-s#, _row_ (√#ser-#, _string_); #spec-iē-s#, _sight_, _looks_ (√#spec-#, _spy_, _see_); #pernic-iē-s#, _destruction_ (#per#, √#nec-#, _murder_).

223. #-t-iē-#, N. #-t-iē-s#: #permi-tiē-#, N. #permi-tiē-s#, _wasting away_ (#per#, √#mi-#, _less_).

(2.) #-min-# (103) (N. #-men#); #-din-#, #-gin-# (105, _g_) (N. #-dō#, #-gō#).

224. #-min-#, N. #-men# (202), usually active, occasionally passive, is very common; it sometimes denotes the means, instrument, or effect.

#certā-min-#, N. #certā-men#, _contest_ (#certā-re#); #crī-men#, _charge_ (√#cer-#, #crī-#, _sift_); #spec-imen#, _what is inspected_, _sample_ (√#spec-#, _spy_, _see_); #lū-men#, _light_ (√#lūc-#, _light_); #flū-men#, _flood_, _stream_ (√#flugṷ-#, _flow_); #ag-men#, _what is led_, _train_ (√#ag-#, _lead_). Words in #-min-# often mean nearly the same as those in #-mento-# (239): as, #levā-men#, #levā-mentu-m#, _lightening_; #teg-umen#, #teg-umentu-m#, _covering_.

225. #ē-din-#, #-ī-din-# (202): #-ē-din-#, N. #-ē-dō#: #grav-ēdin-#, N. #grav-ēdō#, (_heaviness_), _catarrh_ (√#grav-#, _heavy_), #-ī-din-#, N. #-ī-dō#: #cup-īdin-#, N. #cup-īdō#, _desire_ (√#cup-#, _desire_); #lib-idō#, _whim_ (√#lib-#, _yearn_).

226. #-ā-gin-#, #-ī-gin-# (202): #-ā-gin-#, N. #-ā-gō#: #vorā-gin-#, N. #vorā-gō#, _gulf_ (#vorā-re#); #imā-gō#, _representation_ (#*imā-#, cf. #imitārī#). #-ī-gin-#, N. #-ī-gō#: #orī-gin-#, N. #orī-gō#, _source_ (#orī-rī#); #cāl-īgō#, _darkness_ (√#cāl-#, _hide_). A few denominatives have #-ū-gin-#, N. #-ū-gō#: #aer-ūgin-#, N. #aer-ūgō#, _copper rust_ (#aer-#).

(3.) #-i-ōn-# (N. #-i-ō#); #-ti-ōn-# or #-si-ōn-# (N. #-ti-ō# or #-si-ō#).

227. #-i-ōn-#, N. #-i-ō#: #opīn-iōn-#, N. #opīn-iō#, _notion_ (#opīnā-rī#); #condic-iō#, _agreement_ (#com-#, √#dic-#, _say_); #contāg-iō#, _touch_ (#com-#, √#tag-#, _touch_). Some words are concrete: #leg-iō#, _pick_, _legion_ (√#leg-#, _pick_). A few are denominatives: #commūn-iō#, _mutual participation_ (#commūni-#).

228. #-ti-ōn-#, N. #-ti-ō#, or #-si-ōn-#, N. #-si-ō# (159, 202), is very common, and may denote action either intransitive, transitive, or passive, or the manner or possibility of action.

#cōgitā-tiōn-#, N. #cōgitā-tiō#, _a thinking_, _a thought_ (_cōgitā-re_); #exīstimā-tiō#, _judging_, _reputation_ (#exīstimā-re#); #coven-tiō#, commonly #cōn-tiō#, _meeting_, _speech_ (#com-#, √#ven-#, _come_); #dēpul-siō#, _warding off_ (#dē-#, √#pol-#, _push_); #oppugnā-tiō#, _besieging_, _method of besieging_ (#oppugnā-re#); #occultā-tiō#, _hiding_, _chance to hide_, _possibility of hiding_ (#occultā-re#). Some words denote the place where: #sta-tiō#, _a stand_ (√#sta-#, _stand_); some become collectives or concretes: #salūtā-tiō#, _greeting_, _levee_, _guests at a levee_ (#salūtā-re#); #mūnī-tiō#, _fortification_, i.e., _act of fortifying or works_ (#mūnī-re#).

(4.) #-ē-lā-# (N. #-ē-la#), #-tē-lā-# (N. #-tē-la#).

229. #-ē-lā-#, N. #-ē-la# (202): #suādē-lā-#, N. #suādē-la#, _persuasion_ (#suādē-rē#): #loqu-ēla#, _talk_ (√#loqu-#, _talk_); #quer-ēla# or #quer-ēlla#, _complaint_ (√#ques-#, _complain_). Some words are concrete: #candē-la#, _candle_ (#candē-re#).

230. #-tē-lā-#, N. #-tē-la-#: #conrup-tēlā-#, N. #conrup-tēla#, _a seduction_ (#com-#, √#rup-#, _spoil_, _ruin_); #tū-tēla#, _protection_ (√#tū-#, _watch_, _protect_).

(5.) #-mā-# (N. #-ma#), #-nā-# (N. #-na#); #-trī-nā-# (N. #-trī-na#).

231. #-mā-# and #-nā-# are rare, and denote result or something concrete. #-mā-#, N. #-ma#: #fā-mā-#, N. #fā-ma#, _tale_ (√#fā-#, _tell_); #-nā#, N. #-na#: #ur-na#, _pitcher_ (√#urc-# in #urc-eus#, _pitcher_, 170, 3); with original suffix #-sna# (170, 2): #lū-na#, _moon_ (√#lūc-#, _light_); #scāla#, _stairs_ (√#scand-#, _mount_).

232. #-inā-#, N. #-ina#: #ang-inā-#, N. #ang-ina#, _choking_ (√#ang-#, _choke_); #pāg-ina#, _page_ (√#pāg-#, _fasten_); #sarc-ina#, _package_ (√#sarc-#, _patch_). #-īnā-#, N. #-īna# (202): #ru-īnā-#, N. #ru-īna#, _downfall_ (√#ru-#, _tumble_); #-īnā-# is very common in denominatives: #pisc-īna#, _fish-pond_ (#pisci-#).

233. #-trī-nā-#, N. #-trī-na#, akin to the agent in #-tōr-#: #doc-trīnā-#, N. #doc-trīna#, _teaching_, either _the act of teaching_ or _what is taught_ (√#doc-#, _teach_); #sū-trīna#, _shoemaking_, _shoemaker’s trade_, _shoemaker’s shop_ (√#sū-#, _sew_).

(6.) #-tā-# or #-sā-# (N. #-ta# or #-sa#); #-tu-# or #-su-# (N. #-tu-s# or #-su-s#).

234. #-tā-#, N. #-ta#, or #-sā-#, N. #-sa# (159), is rare, and sometimes denotes result, or something concrete: as, #no-tā-#, N. #no-ta#, _mark_ (√#gno-#, _know_); #por-ta# (_passage_), _gate_ (√#por-#, _fare_); #fos-sa#, _ditch_ (√#fod-#, _dig_); #repul-sa#, _repulse_ (#re-#, √#pol-#, _push_); #offēn-sa#, _offence_ (#ob#, √#fend-#, _strike_).

235. #-tu-#, N. #-tu-s#, or #-su-#, N. #-su-s# (159, 202), denotes the action and its results: #ques-tu-#, N. #ques-tu-s#, _complaint_ (√#ques-#, _complain_); #gem-itus#, _groan_ (√#gem-#, _groan_). Stems in #-ā-tu-#, N. #-ā-tu-s#, sometimes denote office or officials: #cōnsul-ātu-#, N. #cōnsul-ātu-s#, _being consul_, _consulship_ (#cōnsul-#); #sen-ātu-s#, _senate_ (#sen-#). #-tu-# is seldom passive: #vī-su-s#, active, _sight_, passive, _looks_ (√#vīd-#, _see_); #apparā-tu-s#, _preparation_, either _a getting ready_, or _what is got ready_ (#apparā-re#). The supine (2269) is the accusative or ablative of substantives in #-tu-# (#-su-#). Most words in #-tu-# (#-su-#) are defective in case, and are chiefly used in the ablative (430).

[Erratum: 234 ... as, #no-tā-#, N. #no-ta#, _mark_ #no tā-# with invisible hyphen]

(7.) #-er-# for #-es-# (N. #-us#); #-ōr-# (N. #-or#).

236. Neuter stems in #-er-# (for #-es-#), or in #-or-# (for #-os-#), N. #-us#, denote result, or have a concrete meaning: #gen-er-#, N. #gen-us#, _birth_, _race_ (√#gen-#, _beget_); #op-er-#, N. #op-us#, _work_ (√#op-#, _work_); #frīg-or-#, N. #frīg-us#, _cold_ (√#frīg-#, _cold_). #-ēs# with lengthened #ē# is sometimes used in the nominative of gender words: as, #nūb-ēs#, _cloud_ (√#nūb-#, _veil_); #sēd-ēs#, _seat_ (√#sēd-#); #vāt-ēs#, _bard_. #-n-er-#, #-n-or-#, N. #-n-us#: #vol-ner-#, N. #vol-nus#, _wound_ (√#vol-#, _tear_); #fac-inor-#, N. #fac-inus#, _deed_ (√#fac-#, _do_, 202).

237. #-ōr-# (for an older form #-ōs-#, 154), N. #-ōs#, commonly #-or#, masculine, denotes a state. Many substantives in #-ōr-# have a parallel verb, usually in #-ēre# (368), and an adjective in #-ido-# (287).

#od-ōr-#, N. #od-ōs# or #od-or#, _smell_ (√#od-#, _smell_, cf. #olē-re#); #pall-or#, _paleness_ (cf. #pallē-re#); #cal-or#, _warmth_ (cf. #calē-re#); #ūm-or#, _moisture_ (cf. #ūmē-re#); #am-or#, _love_ (cf. #amā-re#); #ang-or#, _choking_, _anguish_ (√#ang-#, _choke_).

[Erratum: 237 ... #od-ōr-#, N. #od-ōs# or #od-or#, _smell_ #od-ōr-# N.]

III. THE INSTRUMENT OR MEANS.

238. The suffixes #-men-to-#, #-tro-#, #-cro-# or #-culo-#, #-lo-#, #-bro-# or #-bulo-#, are used to denote the _Instrument_ or _Means_: as,

STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.

ōrnā-mento- ōrnāmentum, _embellishment_ ōrnā-re, _embellish_ arā-tro- arātrum, _plough_ arā-re, _plough_ pō-culo- pōculum, _drinking-cup_ √+pō-+, _drink_ pā-bulo- pābulum, _fodder_ √+pā-+, _feed_

239. #-men-to-#, N. #-men-tu-m# (202), is one of the commonest suffixes; it sometimes denotes result of action, rarely action itself.

#pig-mento-#, N. #pig-mentu-m#, _paint_ (√#pīg-#, _paint_); #experī-mentu-m#, _test_ (#experī-rī#); #ōrnā-mentu-m#, _ornament_ (#ōrnā-re#); #frag-mentu-m#, _fragment_ (√#frag-#, _break_); #cae-mentu-m#, _quarried stone_ (√#caed-#, _cut_); #incrē-mentu-m#, _growth_ (#in#, √#crē-#, _grow_); #al-imentu-m#, _nourishment_ (√#al-#, _nurture_); #doc-umentu-m#, _lesson_ (√#doc-#, _teach_). See also #-min-# (224). #-men-tā-#, N. #-men-ta#, F., is rare: #ful-menta#, _prop_ (√#fulc-#, _prop_); #rā-menta#, _scraping_ (√#rād-#, _scrape_).

240. #-tro-#, N. #-tru-m# (202): #arā-tro-#, N. #arā-tru-m#, _plough_ (#arā-re#); #fer-etru-m#, _bier_ (√#fer-#, _bear_); #rōs-tru-m#, _beak_ (√#rōd-#, _peck_). Sometimes #-stro-#: #mōn-stru-m#, _warning_ (√#mon-#, _mind_); #lu-stra#, plural, _fen_, _jungle_ (√#lu-#, _wash_); #lū-stru-m#, _purification_ (√#lou-#, _wash_). #-trā-#, N. #-tra#, F.: #mulc-trā-#, N. #mulc-tra# (also #mulc-tru-m#, Ne.), _milking-pail_ (√#mulg-#, _milk_). #-es-trā-#: #fen-estra#, _window_.

241. #-cro-#, N. #-cru-m#, used when an #l# precedes: #ful-cro-#, N. #ful-cru-m#, _couch-leg_ (√#fulc-#, _prop_). #-cro-# sometimes denotes the place where: #ambulā-cru-m#, _promenade_ (#ambulā-re#); sometimes the effect: #simulā-cru-m#, _likeness_ (#simulā-re#).

242. #-culo-#, N. #-culu-m# (202): #pō-culo-#, N. #pō-culu-m#, _cup_ (√#pō-#, _drink_); #fer-culu-m#, _tray_ (√#fer-#, _bear_). #-culo-# sometimes denotes the place where: #cub-iculu-m#, _sleeping-room_ (√#cub-#, _lie_); #cēnā-culu-m#, originally _dining-room_, usually _garret_ (#cēnā-re#).

243. #-u-lo-#, N. #-u-lu-m-# (202): chiefly after #c# or #g#: #vinc-ulo-#, N. #vinc-ulu-m#, _bond_ (√#vinc-#, _bind_); #cing-ulu-m#, _girdle_ (√#cing-#, _gird_). #-u-lā-#, N. #-u-la#, F., #rēg-ula#, _rule_ (√#rēg-#, _guide_).

244. #-bro-#, N. #-bru-m# (202): #crī-bro-#, N. #crī-bru-m#, _sieve_ (√#cer-#, #crī-#, _sift_); #lā-bru-m#, _wash-basin_ (√#lav-#, _wash_). #-brā-#, N. #-bra#, F.: #dolā-bra#, _chisel_, _mattock_ (#dolā-re#); #late-bra#, _hiding-place_ (√#lat-#, _hide_).