Part 61

2460. The natural quantity of such a vowel may sometimes be ascertained: (_a._) from the statements of ancient writers; (_b._) from the way in which the vowel is written in Latin inscriptions (see 24, 29); (_c._) from the transliteration of the word into other languages, especially Greek; (_d._) from the etymology of the word, or from a comparison of it with kindred words in other Indo-European languages; (_e._) from comparison with derived words in the Romance languages. But all these kinds of evidence must be used with great caution.

2461. For the length of a vowel before #ns#, #nf#, and certain other groups of consonants, see 122.

2462. In inceptive verbs (834) the ending #-scō# is thought to be always preceded by a long vowel: as, #crēscō#, #nāscor#, #proficīscor#.

2463. In the perfect indicative active, perfect participle passive and kindred formations of verbs in #-gō# preceded by a short vowel, as #agō#, #regō#, the theme syllable shows a long vowel: as, #lēxī#, #rēxī#, #tēxī#; #āctus#, #lēctus#; #rēctor#; #āctitō#.

(B.) SOME PECULIARITIES OF QUANTITY IN OLD LATIN.

2464. For the preservation of a long vowel in certain specific endings in old Latin, see 132.

2465. Final #-āl# is sometimes preserved long in the nominative singular: as, #bacchānāl# (Plaut.); also the syllable #-es# in the nominative singular of stems in #-t-# which have the genitive in #-itis# (477): as #mīlēs# (Plaut.) 171, 1.

2466. #Hic#, #illic# and #istic#, when adverbs, have a long final syllable; but when nominative singular masculine, have the final syllable regularly short.

2467. In Plautus #frūstrā# always where determinable (seven times) has the final syllable short. #contrā# sometimes has a short final syllable in old Latin.

2468. In Latin poetry down to the time of Cicero, final #s# often does not “make position” before a following consonant (66); as, #tempŭs fert# (Plaut.); #magĭs stetisse# (Ter.).

2469. The first syllable of #ille#, #illic# (the pronoun), #quippe#, #immō#, #inde#, #unde#, #nempe#, #omnis#, and perhaps #iste#, is sometimes shortened.

In #ille#, #illic#, #quippe#, and #immō# the shortening is, some hold, due to the fact that in common speech one of the double consonants was often pronounced faintly or not at all; while in #inde#, #unde#, #nempe#, and #omnis# the nasal was very faintly sounded before the following consonant. But some authorities hold that always in #nempe#, and sometimes in #ille#, #quippe#, #inde#, #unde#, and perhaps #iste#, before an initial consonant final #e# disappears, and the word becomes a monosyllable.

LAW OF IAMBIC SHORTENING.

2470. A long syllable, preceded by a short monosyllable or by a short initial syllable, and immediately preceded or followed by the verse-ictus, may be shortened: as, #ét hŭnc#, #dómŏ mē#, #ad ŭxṓrem#, #volŭntā́te#.

The short monosyllable may be a word which has become monosyllabic by elision: as, #ég(o) hănc#.

2471. If the syllable to be shortened is the first of a word of more than one syllable, or the second of a polysyllable, it must be one which is long by position, not by nature. There are some possible exceptions to this rule, such as #verĕbā́minī# (T. _Ph._ 902); but these are few and doubtful.

2472. Iambic shortening took place not only in verse, but also to a considerable extent in common speech, particularly in iambic words (see 130), in which the accent coöperated with the verse-ictus to produce the shortening.

II. FIGURES OF PROSODY.

HIATUS.

2473. For hiatus within a word, and the means by which it is avoided, see 114-120.

2474. Hiatus between two words is much more common in old Latin than in writers of the classical period. The precise extent to which it is allowed by the early dramatists is matter of dispute. The following cases may be mentioned in which the Latin poets admit hiatus:

2475. (1.) After interjections: as, #hahahae homo#, T. _Ph._ 411; #ō et praesidium#, H. 1, 1, 2.

2476. (2.) After proper names, and words of Greek origin: as, #ancillam ferre Venerī aut Cupīdinī#, Pl. _As._ 804; #Thrēiciō Aquilōne#, H. _Epod._ 13, 3.

2477. (3.) In the principal caesura of a verse. So especially in Plautus and Terence after the fourth foot of the iambic septenarius, and in Plautus in the principal break in the iambic octonarius, trochaic septenarius and trochaic octonarius.

2478. (4.) Often in the dramatists where there is a change of speakers: as, #quī potuit vidēre? :: oculīs :: quō pactō? :: hiantibus#, Pl. _Merc._ 182.

2479. (5.) Probably sometimes in cases of repetition, enumeration, or sharp antithesis, and where there is an important pause in the sense: as, #eam volt meretrīcem facere: ea mē dēperit#, Pl. _Cur._ 46; #sī pereō, hominum manibus periisse iuvābit#, V. 3, 606.

2480. Vergil sometimes admits hiatus when the final syllable ending in a vowel is preceded or followed (or both) by two short syllables: as, #lāmentīs gemitūque et fēmĭnĕō ŭlŭlātū#, V. 4, 667.

ELISION.

2481. For elision within a word, see 119.

2482. In verse a final vowel is generally elided before a vowel or #h#: as,

#quidve moror, s(ī) omnīs ūn(ō) ōrdin(e) habētis Achīvōs#, V. 2, 102. Such a vowel was probably faintly sounded, not dropped altogether.

2483. Elision is frequent in most of the early poets; but writers of the Augustan and succeeding ages regarded it with increasing disfavour. The elision of a long vowel before a short was in general avoided; but there are numerous exceptions.

2484. Monosyllabic interjections do not suffer elision.

2485. Monosyllables ending in a diphthong seldom suffer elision before a short vowel.

2486. Diphthongs arising from Synizesis (2499) are sometimes elided in early Latin verse, but not in verse of the classical period.

2487. The monosyllables #quī# (plural), #dō#, #stō#, #rē#, #spē#, are thought never to suffer elision before a short vowel.

2488. The dactylic poets very rarely elide the final syllable of an iambic (⏑ -) or Cretic (- ⏑ -) word before a short vowel.

2489. Elision seldom occurs if the syllable to be elided is immediately preceded by a vowel: as in #de(am) et#.

2490. The final syllable of a Greek word is rarely elided.

2491. Elision is more common toward the beginning of a verse than toward the end.

2492. Elision rarely occurs in the first syllable or last syllable of a verse; but see under Synapheia (2510), and for the elision of the enclitic #-que# or #-ve# at the end of a dactylic hexameter, see 2568.

2493. ECTHLIPSIS (Gr. ἔκθλιψις, _a squeezing out_). Final #m# and a preceding short vowel are usually elided before a vowel or #h#: as,

mōnstr(um) horrend(um) īnform(e) ingēns, cui lūmen ademptum, V. 3, 658.

In such cases the ending was probably not cut off altogether, but was given a faint nasal sound.

2494. Sometimes a monosyllable ending in a short vowel and #m# is not elided before a vowel: as #quắm ego# (Ter.); #súnt cŭm odōre# (Lucr.).

Such unelided monosyllables are most frequent in the early dramatists, and in them usually fall under the verse-ictus. See 61.

2495. The monosyllables #dem#, #stem#, #rem#, #spem#, #sim#, are thought never to be elided before a short vowel.

2496. After a word ending with a vowel, #-m#, or #-us#, the verb #est# often loses its #e#: as, #bonast#, #bonumst#, #bonust#, #vīsust#. So, too, #es# sometimes loses its vowel: as #homo’s#, #adeptus’#. This usage reflects the actual pronunciation of common speech.

2497. SEMI-HIATUS OR SEMI-ELISION. A long final vowel is sometimes shortened before a vowel. This may occur either in the arsis (2520), or in a resolved thesis: as, #án quĭ amant# (Verg.); #léctulŏ ērudītulī# (Cat.); #nam quĭ́ aget# (Ter.).

This kind of shortening is not frequent except in the early dramatists, who often shorten under the verse-ictus a monosyllable ending in a long vowel and followed by an initial vowel (as in the third example above).

2498. SYNALOEPHA (Greek συναλοιφή, _a smearing together_) is a general term used to denote the means of avoiding hiatus. It includes elision and synizesis, though some grammarians use it in the same sense as synizesis.

2499. #Synizesis# (Greek συνίζεσις, _a settling together_). Two vowels (or a vowel and a diphthong) which belong to different syllables sometimes coalesce so as to form one syllable. This is called _Synizesis_, and is especially common in the early dramatists. Examples are: #me͡o#, #e͡adem#, #cu͡ius#, #aure͡i#. See 117.

Some grammarians would include under Synizesis only cases in which a short vowel is subordinated to a following long; as #tu͡o#.

2500. The term _Synaeresis_ (Greek συναίρεσις, _a taking together_) is sometimes used as a synonym for Synizesis. The ancient grammarians, however, used it in the sense of Contraction (118).

2501. DIALYSIS (Greek διάλυσις, _a breaking up_). Conversely, two vowels which usually form a diphthong are sometimes separated so as to form two syllables: as #coëpī# (Lucr.) for #coepī#.

This, however, is really the survival of the original forms (120).

2502. The name DIAERESIS (Greek διαίρεσις, _a separating_) is sometimes used as a synonym for Dialysis; but it is better to restrict it to the meaning defined in 2542.

2503. HARDENING. A vocalic #i# or #u# is sometimes made consonantal before another vowel: as, #abi͡ete#, #ari͡ete# (Verg.); #cōnsili͡um# (Hor.); #omni͡a# (Lucr.). See 117 and 83.

This usage is sometimes included under Synizesis (2499), while some grammarians term it Synaeresis (2500).

2504. SOFTENING. Conversely, a consonantal #i# or #u# sometimes becomes vocalized before a vowel, thus giving an additional syllable: as, #silüae# for #silvae# (Hor.); #ēvolüisse# for #ēvolvisse# (Ov.). See 52.

This usage is sometimes included under the name Dialysis (2501).

2505. DIASTOLÉ (Greek διαστολή, _a drawing asunder_). A syllable which in verse of the classical period is generally short is sometimes used as long for metrical convenience. The syllable so employed generally falls under the verse-ictus, and in most cases is immediately followed by the principal caesura, or by a pause in the sense. Examples are:

terga fatīgāmūs hastā, nec tarda senectus, V. 9, 610. tum sīc Mercurium adloquitūr ac tālia mandat, V. 4, 222. caeca timēt aliunde fāta, H. 2, 13, 16.

In many such cases this lengthening is not arbitrary, but the “lengthened” syllable is one that was originally long (see 132).

2506. The enclitic #-que# is sometimes lengthened under the ictus when another #-que# precedes or follows in the arsis: as, #cālōnēs famulīque metallīquḗ caculaeque# (Accius).

2507. SYSTOLÉ (Greek συστολή, _a drawing together_). Conversely a syllable which in verse is regularly long is sometimes shortened for metrical convenience: as, #dedĕrunt# (Hor.), #nūllĭus# (Hor.), imperat. #commodă# (Cat.).

In most cases this shortening is not arbitrary, but represents a pronunciation which was in actual use, especially among the common people.

2508. SYNCOPÉ (Greek συγκοπή, _a cutting short_). A short vowel is often dropped between two consonants: as, #surpite# for #surripite# (Hor.), #repostum# for #repositum# (Verg.).

This usage doubtless reflects the common pronunciation; see 110, 111.

2509. TMESIS (Greek τμῆσις, _a cutting_) is the separation of the parts of a word: as, #septem subiecta triōnī# = #septemtriōnī subiecta# (Verg.).

This usually occurs only in compounds; but early poets sometimes divided other words: as, #saxō cere comminuit brum# for #saxō cerebrum comminuit# (Ennius).

2510. SYNAPHEIA (Greek συνάφεια, _a joining together_) is the linking together of two verses belonging to the same system. Here elision or word division may occur at the end of the first verse: as,

Iōve nōn probante u- xōrius amnis, H. 1, 2, 19.

Iam licet veniās marīt(e), uxor in thalamō tibī̆ est, Cat. 61, 191.

[Errata: 2496 ... as #homo’s#, #adeptus’# text unchanged; error for adeptu’s (adeptus es)? 2499. #Synizesis# printed as shown: expected small capitals instead of boldface]

III. VERSIFICATION.

BY HERMAN W. HAYLEY, PH.D.

2511. RHYTHM (Gr. ῥυθμός, from ῥεῖν, _to flow_) is the effect of regularity produced by the discrimination of a movement or sound into uniform intervals of time. It is often marked by a stress or _ictus_ recurring at fixed intervals.

Rhythm is by no means confined to verse. Music, dancing, and even the regular beat of a trip-hammer, have rhythm. Particular kinds of movement are often called rhythms, as anapaestic rhythms, dactylic rhythms, &c.

2512. METRE (Gr. μέτρον, _a measure_) is the definite measurement of verse by feet, lines, strophes, systems, &c.

2513. Latin verse is quantitative, the rhythm depending upon the quantity of the syllables (but see 2548). The ictus naturally falls upon a long syllable (or its equivalent). English verse, on the other hand, is accentual, its rhythm depending upon the accent of words.

QUANTITY.

2514. SIGNS OF QUANTITY. A long syllable is indicated by -, a short one by ⏑. A syllable which varies in quantity, being sometimes long, sometimes short, is indicated by ⏓ or ⏒.

In the following metrical schemes, ⏓ indicates that the long is more usual or more strictly in accordance with the rhythm than the short. The reverse is indicated by ⏒.

2515. The UNIT OF MEASURE is the duration of a short syllable and is called a _Time_, _Tempus_, or _Mora_. The _mora_ did not have an absolute length, but varied with the nature of the rhythm. For greater convenience, however, it is assumed that its length was uniform, and equalled that of an eighth note ♪ A long syllable, being equal to two shorts, has a length of two _morae_, which is assumed to be the same as that of our quarter-note ♩ Hence in notation ⏑ = ♪ and - = ♩

2516. PROTRACTION. A long syllable may be prolonged (_Protraction_) so as to have a length of three _morae_, in which case it is called a _triseme_ (marked ⏗), or of four _morae_, when it is termed a _tetraseme_ (marked ⏘). See 2537 and 2541.

2517. CORREPTION. A long or short syllable may be shortened so as to occupy less than its normal time. This is called _Correption_ (Lat. _correptiō_, _a shortening_). See 2523 and 2524.

2518. RESOLUTION AND CONTRACTION. In some kinds of verse a long syllable may be, as it were, broken up (_Resolution_) into the equivalent two shorts; and conversely two short syllables may in some cases be united (_Contraction_) into the equivalent long.

FEET.

2519. FEET. Latin verse (like English) is measured by groups of syllables called _Feet_. Each of these groups has a definite length of so many _morae_ (2515).

It is theoretically more accurate to make the foot purely a time-division, as some authorities do; but the definition given above is sanctioned by established usage.

2520. ARSIS and THESIS. Every complete foot consists of two parts, an accented and an unaccented. The part on which the rhythmical accent or _ictus_ falls is called the _Thesis_ (Gr. θέσις, _a setting down_). The unaccented part of the foot is termed the _Arsis_ (Gr. ἄρσις, _a raising_).

The name _Thesis_ originally referred to the setting down of the foot in beating time or marching, or to the movement of the leader’s hand in making the downward beat; and _Arsis_ in like manner meant the raising of the foot or hand. But the Roman grammarians misunderstood the Greek terms, supposing them to refer to the lowering and raising of the voice, and so interchanged them. Hence many modern writers prefer to use _Arsis_ to denote the accented, and _Thesis_ the unaccented, part of the foot.

KINDS OF FEET.

2521. The feet in common use are the following:--

+--------------------------------------------------- | FEET OF THREE MORAE. +------------------+---------+------------+----------- | Name. | Sign. | Musically. | Example. +------------------+---------+------------+----------- | Trochee | - ⏑ | ♩♪ | dūcit | Iambus | ⏑ - | ♪♩ | legunt | Tribrach | ⏑ ⏑ ⏑ | ♪♪♪ | hominis +------------------+---------+------------+----------- | FEET OF FOUR MORAE. +------------------+---------+------------+----------- | Dactyl | - ⏑ | ♩♪♪ | dūcimus | Anapaest | ⏑ - | ♪♪♩ | regerent | Spondee | - - | ♩♩ | fēcī | Proceleusmatic | ⏑ ⏑ | ♪♪♪♪ | hominibus +------------------+---------+------------+----------- | FEET OF FIVE MORAE. +------------------+---------+------------+----------- | Cretic | - ⏑ - | ♩♪♩ | fēcerint | First Paeon | - ⏑ ⏑ ⏑ | ♩♪♪♪ | lēgeritis | Fourth Paeon | ⏑ ⏑ ⏑ - | ♪♪♪♩ | celeritās | Bacchīus | ⏑ - - | ♪♩♩ | regēbant +------------------+---------+------------+----------- | FEET OF SIX MORAE. +------------------+---------+------------+----------- | Choriambus | - ⏑ - | ♩♪♪♩ | horribilēs | Ionic _ā māiōre_ | - - ⏑ | ♩♩♪♪ | dēdūcimus | Ionic _ā minōre_ | ⏑ - - | ♪♪♩♩ | relegēbant +------------------+---------+------------+-----------

2522. Other feet mentioned by the ancient grammarians are:--

+------------------+------- | Name. | Sign. +------------------+------- | Pyrrhic | ⏑ ⏑ | Amphibrach | ⏑ - ⏑ | Antibacchīus or} | - - ⏑ | Palimbacchīus } | | Molossus | - - - | Dispondee | - - - - | Ditrochee | - ⏑ - ⏑ | Diiambus | ⏑ - ⏑ - | Antispast | ⏑ - - ⏑ | Second Paeon | ⏑ - ⏑ | Third Paeon | ⏑ - ⏑ | First Epitrite | ⏑ - - - | Second Epitrite | - ⏑ - - | Third Epitrite | - - ⏑ - | Fourth Epitrite | - - - ⏑ +------------------+-------

But these are of little practical importance, as most of them never are employed in Latin poetry, and the few which do occur are used only as substitutes for other feet.

CYCLIC FEET.

[Transcriber’s Note: In this section, forms such as {8} or {16.} represent musical notes: eighth note, dotted sixteenth and similar.]

2523. A dactyl occurring in 3/8 time did not have the value of 2 _morae_ + 1 + 1, but was given instead that of 1½ + ¾ + ¾; in other words both arsis and thesis suffered correption (2517), but the ratio between them remained unchanged. Such a dactyl is called _cyclic_, and is marked - ⏖, or musically {8.} {16.} {16.} There is also a _cyclic anapaest_, marked ⏖ - or {16.} {16.} {8.}

Some scholars, however, hold that the cyclic dactyl had approximately the value 1½ + ½ + 1, or {8.} {16} {8}, and mark it -⏑ ⏑. In like manner they mark the cyclic anapaest ⏑ ⏑-. The true nature of these cyclic feet is very uncertain.

IRRATIONAL SYLLABLES AND FEET.

2524. A long syllable sometimes stands in place of a short. A syllable thus used is called _irrational_ (marked >) because it destroys the normal #ratio# between arsis and thesis. The foot which contains such a syllable is itself called irrational. The most common irrational foot is the _irrational spondee_ (-> when it stands for a trochee; >- when it replaces an iambus), which is found in iambic, trochaic, and logaoedic rhythms.

Probably the irrational long suffered a slight correption (2517), so that its duration was between that of the ordinary long and that of a short syllable.

RHYTHMS.

2525. The different rhythms or metres are named trochaic, iambic, &c., according to their fundamental feet.

2526. Much of the Latin poetry (though not by any means all) was written to be sung. The Greeks and Romans employed in their music not only common (or 2/4) time and triple (3/8, 3/4) time, but also 5/8 time, which last is very rarely used in modern music.

2527. The Greek and Roman metricians divided the rhythms into three classes, according to the ratio between arsis and thesis in their fundamental feet. These classes were:-- (_a._) the _Equal Class_ (γένος ἴσον, _genus pār_) in which thesis and arsis are equal in duration, as in dactylics, anapaestics, &c.; (_b._) the _Double Class_ (γένος διπλάσιον, _genus duplex_) in which the thesis has twice the duration of the arsis, as in trochaics, iambics, &c.; (_c._) the _Hemiolic Class_ (γένος ἡμιόλιον, _genus sēscuplex_) in which the thesis has one and a half times the duration of the arsis, as in bacchiacs, cretics, etc.

2528. ASCENDING AND DESCENDING RHYTHMS. Rhythms in which the thesis follows the arsis (as in iambics) are called _ascending_; those in which it precedes the arsis (as in trochaics) are termed _descending_.

ANACRUSIS.

2529. The ancients recognized both ascending and descending rhythms (2528), and regarded the former class as at least equal in importance to the latter; but many modern scholars since the time of Bentley have preferred to treat all rhythms as descending, regarding the first arsis of an ascending rhythm as merely answering to a preliminary upward beat in music. Such an initial arsis was named by Gottfried Hermann _Anacrūsis_ (Gr. ἀνάκρουσις, _a striking up_).

Scholars have been influenced to adopt the anacrustic theory in its widest extent largely by the fact that in most modern music a measure must commence with a downward beat, a rule which did not hold in ancient music. By this theory an iambic verse becomes trochaic with anacrusis, an anapaestic verse dactylic with anacrusis, &c. But in many cases those kinds of verse which begin with an arsis were subject to different rules of construction from those which begin with a thesis. Hence it seems best to restrict anacrusis to logaoedic verse, in which it undoubtedly occurs.

2530. The anacrusis may be a long syllable, a short syllable, or two shorts (but not two longs). It is often irrational (2524). In metrical schemes it is often set off from the rest of the verse by a vertical row of dots: thus, ⁝

GROUPS OF FEET.

2531. A group of two feet is called a _dipody_, one of three a _tripody_, one of four a _tetrapody_, one of five a _pentapody_, and one of six a _hexapody_. The dipody is the measure of trochaic, iambic, and anapaestic verse. Other kinds of verse are measured by the single foot.

A single foot is sometimes called a _monopody_. A group of three half feet, i.e. a foot and a half, is sometimes called a _trithemimeris_, one of two and a half feet a _penthemimeris_, one of three and a half a _hephthemimeris_, &c.

2532. A _Rhythmical Series_, _Rhythmical Sentence_, or _Colon_ is a group of two or more feet (but not more than six) which are united into a rhythmic whole by strengthening one of the ictuses, so that it becomes the principal or dominant ictus of the whole group.

2533. THE VERSE. A rhythmical series, or group of two (or even three) series, which forms a distinct and separate whole is called a _Verse_. The final syllable of a verse must terminate a word (except in cases of synapheia, see 2510), and may be either long or short (whence it is termed _syllaba anceps_) without regard to the rhythm. Hiatus (2474) is freely allowed at the end of a verse (though in rare cases elision occurs before a vowel at the beginning of the following verse; see 2492 and 2568).

A verse is generally (but not always) written as one line. Hence, the words “verse” and “line” are often used as synonyms.

SYLLABA ANCEPS.

2534. In the present work, the final syllable of each verse is marked long or short as the rhythm may require, without reference to its quantity in a given example; and in the general schemes it is to be understood that the final syllable is _syllaba anceps_ (2533) unless the contrary is expressly stated.

2535. DICOLIC AND ASYNARTETIC VERSES. A verse which consists of two rhythmical series (or cola) is called _dicolic_. If the series of which the verse is made up are quasi-independent of each other, so that hiatus or syllaba anceps occurs in the caesura, the verse is styled _asynartetic_ (Gr. ἀσυνάρτητος, _not joined together_).