Part 6

(2.) An unvoiced mute before a voiced consonant became voiced. The prepositions #ob#, #ab#, #sub#, for #*op#, #*ap#, #*sup#, owe their final #b# to their frequent position before voiced mutes: as, #obdūcō#, #abdīcō#, #sub dīvō#. The forms #*op# (still preserved in #op-eriō#, _I close_, 1019) #*ap# (preserved in #ap-erio#, _I open_, 1019; cf. Greek ἀπό) and #*sup# (preserved in the adjective #supīnus#, _supine_) were then crowded out by #ob#, #ab#, and #sub#.

(3.) Nasals changed their place of articulation to that of the following consonant. Thus, dental #n# before the labials #p# and #b# became labial #m#: as, #imbibō#, _I drink in_, #impendeō#, _I hang over_. Labial #m# before the gutturals #c# and #g# became guttural #n# (62): as, #prīnceps#, _leader_, #singulī#, _severally_ (the original labials appear in #prīmus#, #semel# (138)); #hunc# for #*homce# (662). Labial #m# before the dentals #t#, #d#, #s# became dental #n#: as, #cōnsecrō#, _I consecrate_, from #com# (#cum#) and #sacrō#; #tantus#, _so great_, from #tam#; #quondam#, _once_, from #quom#; #tandem#, _at length_, from #tam#. But sometimes the etymological spelling was retained: as, #quamdiū#, _as long as_. But #m# does not change to #n# before #t# or #s# in the inflection of verbs and nouns, where #mt#, #ms# develop into #mpt#, #mps# (167): as, #sūmptus#, #sūmpsī#, from #sūmō#.

(4.) #p# and #b# before #n# changed to #m#: as, #somnus#, _sleep_, for #*sop-nus# (cf. #sopor#); #omnis#, _all_, for #*op-nis# (cf. #opēs#); #Samnium#, for #*Sabnium# (cf. #Sabīnī#).

(5.) #m# before unsyllabic #i# (#i̭#) became #n#: as, #quoniam# (with vocalic #i#; 153, 4), _since_, for #*quoni̭am# from #quom iam# (1882); #coniungō#, _I join together_, for #*comiungō#.

(6.) #c# between #n# and #l#, and before #m#, changed to #g#: as, #angulus#, _corner_, with anaptyctical (172) vowel #u# for #*anglus#, from #*anclus# (cf. #ancus#); #segmentum#, _section_, from the stem #sec-# in #secāre#.

165. It appears that at a very early period the neighbourhood of a nasal changed an unvoiced mute into a voiced one: as, #ē-mungō#, _I clean out_, by the side of #mūcus#; #pangō#, _I fix_, by the side of #pāc-# in #pāx#, _peace_ (gen. #pāc-is#).

166. ENTIRE ASSIMILATION. (1.) One mute is assimilated to another: thus #p# or #b# to #c#: as, #suc-currō#, _I assist_; #t# or #d# to #c#: as, #sic-cus#, _dry_ (cf. #sit-is#, _thirst_), #accipiō#, _I accept_; #d# to #g#: as, #agglūtinō#, _I glue on_; #t# or #d# to #qu#: as, #quicquam#, _anything_; #t# or #d# to #p#: as, #appellō#, _I call_; #quippe#, _why?_ (1690).

(2.) A mute is assimilated to a spirant: thus, #p# to #f# in #officīna#, _workshop_, for #*opficīna#, syncopated form of #*opificīna#; #d# to #f#: as, #afferō#, _I bring hither_; when #t# is thus assimilated to #s# the result is #ss# after a short vowel, and #s# after a long vowel (170, 7) or when final (171); as, in the #-s-# perfects, #concussī#, _I shook_, for #*concutsī# (#concutiō#, 961); #messuī#, _I mowed_, for #*metsuī# (#metō#, 835); #suāsī#, _I advised_, for #*suātsī# (#suādeō#, 1000); #clausī#, _I shut_, for #*clautsī# (#claudō#, 958); #haesī#, _I stuck_, for #haes-sī# (868) from #haerēre#, stem #haes-# (154); in the same way #possum#, _I can_, for #*potsum# (cf. #pot-est#, 752); #prōsum#, _I am of advantage_, for #*prōtsum# (cf. #prōd-esse#); #legēns#, _reading_, for #*legents# (from the stem #legent-#, cf. genitive #legent-is#). An #s# is never assimilated to a following #t#: as, #haustus#, _drained_ (1014), from the stem #haus-#, present #hauriō# (154). Forms like the rare #hausūrus# (Verg.) are made after the analogy of dental stems.

(3.) One spirant, #s#, is assimilated to another, #f#: as, #difficilis#, _difficult_, #differō#, _I am unlike_, from #dis# and #facilis#, #ferō#.

(4.) A mute is assimilated to a nasal: thus #d# to #m# in #mamma#, _woman’s breast_, from the stem #mad-# (cf. #madeō#, 1006); #rāmus#, _branch_, #rāmentum#, _splinter_, from the stem #rād-# (cf. #rādō#, 958) with simplification of the double #m# after the long vowel. #d# to #n# in #mercēnārius#, _hireling_, from the stem #mercēd-#, _reward_, (for #mercennarius#, see 133, 1); #p# to #m# in #summus#, _highest_, from the stem #sup-# (cf. #super#). A progressive assimilation of #nd# to #nn# belongs to the Oscan dialect, and occurs only very rarely in Latin: as, #tennitur# (Ter.), #distennite# (Plaut.). See 924; 950.

(5.) One nasal, #n#, is assimilated to another, #m#: as #immōtus#, _unmoved_. But an #m# before #n# is never assimilated: as, #amnis#, _river_.

(6.) Mutes or nasals are assimilated to liquids; thus #n# to #l#: as, #homullus#, _manikin_, for #*homon-lus# (cf. #homun-culus#); #ūllus# (274); #d# to #l#: as, #sella#, _seat_, for #*sed-la# from the stem #sed-# (cf. #sedeō#); #caelum#, _chisel_, from the stem #caed-# (cf. #caedō#) with simplification of the double #l# after the diphthong (170, 7); #n# to #r#: as, #irruō#, _I rush in_; and with progressive assimilation #n# to a preceding #l#: as, #tollō#, _I lift_, for #*tolnō# (833); #fallō#, _I cheat_ (932); #pellō#, _I push_ (932). But no assimilation is to be assumed for #parricīda#, which does not stand for #patricīda# (133, 1).

(7.) One liquid, #r#, is assimilated to another, #l#: as, #pelliciō#, _I lead astray_ (956), for #*per-liciō#; #agellus#, _small field_, for #*agerlos#; #pūllus#, _clean_, from #*pūrlos# (cf. #pūrus#, _clean_).

(8.) A spirant, #s#, is assimilated to a preceding liquid in #velle#, _wish_, for #*velse#, #ferre#, _carry_, for #*ferse# (the infinitive ending #-se# appears in #es-se#, 895); #facillimus#, _easiest_, for #*facilsimus# (345); #sacerrimus#, _holiest_, for #*sacersimus# (344). But where #ls# and #rs# are not original but the result of lightening (170, 3; 10) they remain unchanged: as, #arsī#, _I burnt_, for #*artsī# from the stem #ard-# (cf. #ardeō#, 1000); #alsī#, _I felt cold_, for #*alcsī# from the stem #alg-# (cf. #algeō#, 1000).

(9.) #g# and #d# were assimilated to a following unsyllabic #i# (#i̭#) the result being (153, 2) #ii# (#i̭i̭#); thus #peiior#, _worse_, for #*ped-i̭or#, from the stem #ped-# (532), whence also the superlative #pessimus# for #*petsimus# (166, 2); #maiior#, _greater_, for #*mag-i̭or# (the stem #mag-# appears in #magis#); #aiiō#, _I say_, for #*ag-i̭ō# (the stem #ag-# appears in #ad-ag-ium#, #prōd-ig-ium#, 219). These forms were pronounced by Cicero with doubled #i̭# (23), and traces of the spelling with double #ii# are still found (23), though in common practice only one #i# is written (153, 2). On the confusion of syllabic quantity with vowel quantity in these words, see 133, 2.

[Errata: 164 ... #scrīptus#, _written_, for #*scribtus#; writtén #trāxī#, _I dragged_, for #*trāghsī#; #*trāghsī#, 166(4) ... #distennite# (Plaut.). last . invisible] (6.) Mutes or nasals (6).]

CONSONANTAL GLIDES.

167. Pronunciation of two successive consonants is sometimes facilitated by the insertion of a consonant which serves as a glide. Such insertion is not frequent.

In inflection a #p# was thus developed between #m# and #s#, between #m# and #l#, and between #m# and #t# (elsewhere #mt# changed to #nt#, see 164, 3): as, #sūmpsī#, _I took_, #sūmptus#, _taken_, from #sūmere# for #*sūmsī#, #*sūmtus#; and in the corresponding forms of #cōmō#, #dēmō#, #prōmō# (953); #exemplum#, _pattern_, for #*exemlum# from the stem #em-#, _take_ (cf. #eximere#, 103, #a#).

DISAPPEARANCE.

168. A word may be lightened by the disappearance of an initial, a medial, or a final consonant.

Disappearance of an initial consonant is sometimes called _Aphaeresis_, of a medial, _Syncope_, of a final, _Apocope_.

169. INITIAL DISAPPEARANCE. (1.) Initial #tl# changed to #l#: as, #lātus#, _borne_, for #*tlātus# from #tollō# (187, 917).

(2.) Initial #gn# changed to #n#: as, #nātus#, _born_, for earlier GNATVS from the stem #gen-#, #gnā# (187); #nōscō#, _I find out_, for #gnōscō#, GNOSCIER (897); #nārus#, _knowing_, for the more frequent #gnārus#, #nāvus#, _active_, for #gnāvus#. Cf. the compounds #cō-gnātus#, #cō-gnōscō#, #ī-gnārus#, #ī-gnāvus# (170, 6) which preserve the #g#. But #Gnaeus# retained its #G#.

(3.) Initial #d# when followed by consonant #i# (_i̭_), disappeared: as, #Iovis#, #Iūpiter#, for #*Di̭ovis#, #*Di̭ūpiter#. Where the #i# was vocalic, #d# was retained: as, #dīus#.

(4.) Initial #stl-# first changed to #sl# and then to #l#: as, Old Latin #stlocus#, _place_, #stlīs#, _law-suit_ (Quint. 1, 4, 16), STLOC, SLIS, classical #locus#, #līs#; also #lātus#, _wide_, for #*stlātus#. That a form #*slocus# existed is proved by #īlicō# (698, 703) from #*in-slocō#, _on the spot_ (170, 2).

170. MEDIAL DISAPPEARANCE. (1.) #c#, #g#, #p#, and #b# disappear before #s# followed by an unvoiced consonant: as, #sescentī#, _six hundred_, for #*sexcentī# from #sex#; #illūstris#, _resplendent_, for #*illūcstris# from #lūceō#; #discō#, _I learn_, from #*dicscō# for #*di-tc-scō# (834), a reduplicated present from the root #dec-# (cf. #decet#) like #gignō# (from the root #gen-#), and #sīdō# (for #*si-sd-ō#, 170, 2, from the root #sed-#, 829). Sometimes prepositions follow this rule: as, #asportō#, _I carry off_, for #*absportō#, #suscipiō#, _I undertake_, for #*subscipiō# (#subs# formed from #sub# like #abs# from #ab#; #sub-cipiō# gives #succipiō#); occasionally also #ecferō#, for #exferō#, _I carry out_. But more frequently prepositional compounds remain unchanged: as, #obscūrus#, _dark_; #abscēdō#, _I withdraw_. In some words the lost consonant has been restored by analogy: as, #sextus#, _sixth_, for #*sestus# (cf. #Sēstius#) after #sex#; #textor#, _weaver_, for #*testor# after #texō#.

(2.) #s# before voiced consonants was voiced (75) and is dropped. If a consonant precedes the #s# this is dropped also. In either case the preceding vowel is lengthened. Voiced #s# alone is dropped: as, #prīmus#, _first_, for #*prīs-mus# (cf. #prīs-cus#); #cānus#, _gray_, for #*casnus# (cf. #cas-cus#); adverb #pōne#, _behind_, for #*posne# (cf. #pos#, 1410); #dīlābī#, _glide apart_, for #*dislābi#; #īdem#, _the same_, for ISDEM (678); #iūdex#, _judge_, for #iūsdex#; #trēdecim#, _thirteen_, for #*trēsdecim#. And with subsequent shortening of the final syllable (130, 3) #abin#, _goest thou?_ for #abisn(e)#; #viden#, _seest thou?_ for #vidēsn(e)#. Voiced #s# with the preceding consonant is dropped: as, #trādūcō#, _I lead across_, #trānō#, _I swim across_, for #trānsdūcō#, #trānsnō#; but in these prepositional compounds the #-ns# was often retained: as, #trānsmittō#, _I send across_; #sēnī#, _six each_, for #*secsnī#; #sēmēnstris#, _every six months_, for #secsmēnstris#; #sēvirī#, _the Board of Six_, for #secsvirī#; #āla#, _wing_, for #*acsla# (cf. #ax-illa#, Cic. _O._ 153); #māvolō# (779) for #magsvolō# from #magisvolō#, 396; #tōles# (plural), _goiter_, for #*tōnsles# (cf. #tōnsillae#, _tonsils_); #pīlum#, _pestle_, for #*pīnslum# from #pīnsere#, _crush_; two consonants and voiced #s# are dropped in #scāla#, _stair_, for #*scand-sla# (cf. #scandō#).

(3.) #c# falls away when it stands between a liquid and #t#, #s#, #m#, or #n#: as, #ultus#, _avenged_, for #*ulctus# from #ulc-iscor# (980); #mulsī# for #*mulcsī# from both #mulgeō#, _I milk_, and #mulceō#, _I stroke_; similarly other stems in #-c# and #-g# (1000, 1014); #quernus#, _oaken_, for #*quercnus# from #quercus#; #tortus#, _turned_, for #*torctus# from #torqueō# (for the change of #qu# to #c#, see 158); for #fortis#, _brave_, #forctis# is found in old Latin.

(4.) #c# drops out when it stands between #n# and #t#: as, #quīntus#, _fifth_, for older #quīnctus# (2412), from #quīnque# (for the change of #qu# to #c#, see 158; for the long #ī# in #quīnque#, see 122, _b_). But verbs having stems in #-nc# or #-ng# retain the #c# in their past participles: as, #vīnctus#, _bound_, from #vincīre# (1014); #iūnctus#, _joined_, from #iungere# (954). In #pāstus# (965) #c# has dropped out between #s# and #t#.

(5.) The group #-ncn-# was simplified to simple #-n-#, and the preceding vowel was lengthened: as, #quīnī#, _five each_, for #*quīnc-nī# (317); #cō-nīveō#, _wink and blink_, for #con-cnīveō#.

(6.) #n# before #gn# was dropped and the preceding vowel lengthened: as, #ī-gnōscō#, _I forgive_, for #*in-gnōscō#, #cō-gnōscō#, _I know_, for #*con-gnōscō#. In this manner (170, 5; 6) arises a form #cō-# by the side of #con-# (122, _e_): as, #cō-nectō#, #cō-nubium#, #cō-ligātus# (Gell. 2, 17, 8).

(7.) In the imperial age, #ss# after long vowels and diphthongs was regularly changed to #s#: as, #clausī#, _I closed_; #ūsus#, _used_ (166, 2); but always #ēsse#, _to eat_ (769); #ll# changed to #l# after diphthongs: as, #caelum#, _chisel_ (166, 6); also when preceded by #ī# and followed by #i#: as, #vīlla#, _country-place_, but #vīlicus# (adject.); #mille#, _thousand_, but #mīlia# (642). Elsewhere #ll# was retained after long vowels: as, #pūllus# (166, 7), _clean_; #rāllum#, _ploughshare_, from #rādō# with suffix #-lo-# (209). In Cicero’s time (Quint. 1, 7, 20) the spelling was still #caussa# (155, _b_), _matter_; #cāssus# (930), _fallen_; #divīssiō# (cf. 912), _division_. Vergil also, according to Quintilian, retained the doubled consonants, and the best manuscripts of both Vergil and Plautus frequently show #ll# and #ss# for later #l# and #s#, as do inscriptions: as, PROMEISSERIT, _he might have promised_ (49 B.C.); ACCVSSASSE, _to have accused_.

(8.) After a long vowel #d# was dropped before consonant #u# (#v#): as, #svāvis#, _sweet_, for #*svādvis# from #svād-# (cf. #svādeō#).

(9.) #r# before #st# was dropped: as, #tostus#, _roasted_ (1004) for #*torstus# from the stem #tors-# (cf. #torreo# with assimilated #-rs-#, 166, 8).

(10.) #-rts-# changed to #-rs#: as, #arsī#, _I burnt_, for #*artsī# (1000). #-rcsc-# changed to #-sc-#: as, #poscō#, _I demand_, for #*porcscō# (834).

(11.) In #ipse#, _self_, for #*is-pse#, an #s# has disappeared before #-ps-#

(12.) #d# (#t#) disappears between #r# and #c#: as, #cor-culum# for #cord(i)-culum# (275).

171. FINAL DISAPPEARANCE. (1.) A word never ends in a doubled consonant: as, #es# for #*es-s#, _thou art_, which Plautus and Terence still scan as a long syllable; and the following cases of assimilation: #ter# for #*terr# from #*ters# (cf. #terr-uncius#, _a quarter of an_ #ās#, _a farthing_, 1272, for #*ters-uncius#, 166, 8); #fār#, _spelt_, for #*farr#, from #*fars# (489); #fel#, _gall_, for #*fell#, from #*fels# (482); in #mīles#, _soldier_, for #*mīless# from #*mīlets# (cf. Gen. #mīlitis#, 477) the final syllable is still long in Plautus. #hoc#, _this_, for #*hocc# from #*hod-c(e)#(the neuter #*hod# from the stem #ho-#, as #istud#, #illud# (107, _c_) from #isto-#, #illo-#) counts as a long syllable even in classical poetry.

(2.) No Latin word can end in two explosives: thus, final #t# is dropped in #lac#, _milk_ (478); final #d# in #cor#, _heart_ (476).

(3.) When final #s# was preceded by #r# or #l#, it was assimilated to these liquids, and final #rr# and #ll# were then simplified to #r# and #l#. See the examples under (1). Wherever final #-rs# and #-ls# appear they are not original but the result of the disappearance of an intervening consonant: as, #puls#, _pottage_, for #*pults# (533); #pars#, _part_, for #*parts# (533); all with syncope (111) of the vowel #i# in the nominative #sg#.

(4.) Original final #ns# was changed to #s# and the preceding vowel was lengthened: as, #sanguīs#, _blood_ (2452), for #*sanguins# from the stem #sanguin-# (486). Wherever final #-ns# appears it is not original but the result of the disappearance of an intervening consonant: as, #ferēns#, _carrying_, for #*ferents#, from the stem #ferent-#; #frōns#, _foliage_, for #*fronds#, from the stem #frond-#.

(5.) A dental mute before final #s# is dropped: as, #hērēs#, _heir_, for #*hērēds# (475); #virtūs#, _virtue_, for #*virtūts# (477); #nox#, _night_, for #*nocts# (533); a labial or guttural mute is retained: as, #fornāx# (#x# = #cs#), _furnace_, from the stem #fornāc-# (531); #lēx#, _law_, from the stem #leg-# (472); #urbs#, _city_, from the stem #urb-# (480); #ops# from the stem #op-#, _help_ (480).

[Errata: 170.2 ... #iūdex#, _judge_, for #iūsdex#; #iūsdex#, #abin#, _goest thou?_ for #abisn(e)#; #abisn(e)#,]

DEVELOPMENT OF AN ANAPTYCTICAL VOWEL.

172. Certain consonant groups, notably those containing a liquid, are sometimes eased by the insertion of a vowel which develops between the consonants. This is called _Anaptyxis_ (Greek ἀναπτύσσειν, _unfold_). It is the opposite of syncope of vowels (110, 111).

(1.) The suffix #-clo-# (242), changed to #-culo-#, being thus no longer distinguishable from the diminutive suffix #-culo-# (267): as, #pōculum#, _cup_, for #pōclum# (Plaut.); #vehiculum#, _carriage_, for #vehiclum# (Plaut.). But #-clo-# is more common in Plautus than #-culo-#, especially after long vowels. The suffixes #-blo-# (245), and #-bli-# (294) always show the anaptyctical vowel. Its colour depends on the nature of the #l# (60): as, #stabulum#, _resting-place_; #stabilis#, _steady_. The group #-ngl-# also changes to #-ngul-#: as, #angulus# (164, 6).

(2.) In words borrowed from the Greek an unfamiliar sequence of consonants was so lightened; as, #mina#, _mina_, for #*mna# (μνᾶ); and in Old Latin #drachuma# (Plaut.) for later #drachma#, _drachma_ (δραχμή); #techina#, _trick_, from Greek τέχνη; #Tecumēssa# for #Tecmēssa# (Τέκμησσα).

(3.) Before syllabic (83) #l# and #r# a vowel is developed (111, _b_): as, #íncertus#, _uncertain_, for #*íncr̥tus#; #fácultās#, _capability_, for #fácl̥tās#. Likewise before syllabic #n# (139).

DISSIMILATION.

173. (1.) To avoid the repetition of the same liquid in successive syllables #l# is sometimes changed to #r#: as, #caeruleus#, _sky-blue_, for #*caeluleus#, from #caelum#; #Parīlia#, by the side of #Palīlia#, from #Palēs#; the suffix #-clo-# appears as #-cro-# after an #l#: as, #lavācrum#, _bath_, #simulācrum#, _image_ (241); the suffix #-āli-# under like conditions changes to #-āri-#; as, #molāre#, _of a mill_ (313), but #augurāle#, _of an augur_.

(2.) In a few cases repetition is avoided by dropping the sound once: as, #praestīgiae#, _jugglery_, for #praestrīgiae#. This also applies to the spirant #s# followed by a consonant, a combination which is not tolerated in successive syllables: as in the reduplicated perfects #stetī#, for #*stestī#; #spopondī#, for #*spospondī# (859), where the second syllable, and in #quisquiliae#, _sweepings_, for #*squisquiliae#, where the first syllable was lightened.

CHANGES WITHIN COMPOUNDS.

174. The final syllable of the first member of compounds (181) sometimes undergoes certain changes by analogy to other compounds:

(1.) The final #-ā# of #ā-#stems, by analogy to the more frequent #-o-#stems, usually changed to #-o#, which in atonic syllables became #-i# (105): as, #āli-ger#, _winged_, for #*ālo-ger# from #ālā-#.

(2.) Stems in #-on-# substitute #-o-# for #-on-# by analogy to the #-o-#stems: as, #homi-cída#, _murderer_, for #*homo-cīda# (105) from #homon-# (Nom. #homō#).

(3.) Some stems in #-s# substitute #-o-# by analogy to the #-o-#stems: as, #foedi-fragus#, _treaty-breaking_, for #*foedo-fragus# from the stem #foedos-# (Nom. #foedus#, Gen. #foederis#; 154).

[In section 174, anomalous forms such as #-o-#stems (without space) are in the original.]

SYLLABLES.

175. A word has as many syllables as it has separate vowels or diphthongs. The last syllable is called the _Ultima_; the last syllable but one is called the _Penult_; the last syllable but two is called the _Antepenult_.

176. The quantity of single sounds (e.g. the quantity of a vowel) must be carefully distinguished from the quantity of the group of sounds or the syllable of which the single sound forms a part.

LENGTH OF SYLLABLES.

177. A syllable is long if its vowel is long, or if its vowel is followed by two consonants or by #x# or #z#: as,

#dūcēbās#; #volvunt#. In #dūcēbās# both the vowels and the syllables are long; in #volvunt# the vowels are short, but the syllables are long; in cases like the last the syllables (not the vowels) are said to be _long by position_. #h# does not count as a consonant (58) and #qu# (or #qv#, 27) has the value of a single consonant only: thus, in #adhūc# and #aqua# the first syllable is short.

178. In prose or old dramatic verse a syllable with a short vowel before a mute or #f# followed by #l# or #r# is not long: as #tenebrae#. In other verse, however, such syllables are sometimes regarded as long. In compounds such syllables are long in any verse: as #obruit#.

LOSS OF SYLLABLES.

179. The first of two successive syllables which begin with the same sound is sometimes lost. This is called _Haplology_.

Thus, #sēmodius# for #sēmimodius#, _half a bushel_; #calamitōsus# for #*calamitātōsus#, from the stem #calamitāt-# (262) and suffix #-oso-# (336); #voluntārius#, for #voluntātārius# (262, 309); #cōnsuētūdō#, for #cōnsuētitūdō# (264). See also 255; 379.

B. FORMATION.

180. FORMATION is the process by which stems are formed from roots or from other stems.

181. A word containing a single stem is called a _Simple_ word: as, #magnus#, _great_, stem #magno-#; #animus#, _soul_, stem #animo-#. A word containing two or more stems is called a _Compound_ word: as, #magnanimus#, _great-souled_, stem #magnanimo-#.

182. Most inflected words consist of two parts: a stem, which is usually a modified root (195), and an inflection ending: thus, in #ductōrī#, _for a leader_, the root is #duc-#, _lead_, the stem is #ductōr-#, _leader_, and #-ī# is the inflection ending, meaning _for_.

ROOTS.

183. A ROOT is a monosyllable which gives the fundamental meaning to a word or group of words.

184. A root is not a real word; it is neither a noun, naming something, nor a verb, denoting action. Thus #iug-#, _yoke_, does not mean _a yoke_ nor _I yoke_; it merely _suggests_ something about yoking. The root becomes a real word only when an inflection ending is added, or, more commonly, both a formative suffix and an inflection ending: as, #iug-u-m#, _a yoke_.

185. Roots are common to Latin and its cognate languages, such as the Sanskrit and the Greek. When a root is named in this book, the specific Latin form of the root is meant. This often differs somewhat from the form of the root which is assumed as applicable to all the cognate languages.

186. Almost all roots are noun and verb roots; that is, roots with a meaning which may be embodied either in a noun or in a verb, or in both. Besides these there is a small class, less than a dozen in number, of pronoun roots. There are many words which cannot be traced back to their roots.

187. A root sometimes has two or more forms: as, #fīd-# (for #feid-#), #foed-#, #fid-#, _trust_; #gen-#, #gn-#, _sire_; #tol#, #tl#, _bear_; see 135, 145.

Thus, #fīd-# is found in #fīd-us#, _trusty_, #fīd-ūcia#, _confidence_, #fīd-ūciō#, _I pledge_, #fīd-ūciārius#, _in trust_, #fīd-ere#, _put trust in_, #fīd-ēns#, _courageous_, #fīd-entia#, _courage_; #foed-# in #foed-us#, _pledge of faith_, #foed-erātus#, _bound by a pledge of faith_; #fid-# in #fid-ēs#, _faith_, #fid-ēlis#, _faithful_, #fid-ēliter#, _faithfully_, #fid-ēlitās#, _faithfulness_, #per-fid-us#, _faithless_, #per-fid-ia#, _faithlessness_, #per-fid-iōsus#, _full of faithlessness_, per-fid-iōsē, faithlessly. #gen-# in #gen-itor#, _sire_, #gn-# in #gi-gn-ere#, _beget_, #gn-ā-# in #gnā-tus#, _son_.

188. A root ending in a vowel is called a _Vowel Root_: as, #da-#, _give_; a root ending in a consonant is called a _Consonant Root_: as, #rup-#, _break_. Roots are conveniently indicated by the sign √: as, √#teg-#, to be read ‘root #teg-#.’

189. A root or a part of a root is sometimes doubled in forming a word; this is called _Reduplication_: as, #mur-mur#, _murmur_; #tur-tur#, _turtle-dove_; #po-pul-us#, _people_; #ul-ul-āre#, _yell_.

PRESENT STEMS AS ROOTS.