Part 46

#plērīque interfectī sunt, priusquam occultum hostem vidērent#, L. 35, 29, 3, _most of them were slain before they could see the hidden enemy_. #antequam verbum facerem, dē sellā surrēxit#, _V._ 4, 147, _before I could utter a word he arose from his seat_. #pervēnit priusquam Pompēius sentīre posset#, Caes. _C._ 3, 67, 4, _he arrived before Pompey should be able to learn of his coming_ (1725). The present and perfect subjunctive occur rarely, generally when the main clause contains a present of vivid narration (1590). The imperfect is not found in old Latin.

1920. The perfect indicative or imperfect subjunctive with #antequam# is often used attributively with nouns denoting time: as,

#fābulam docuit, annō ipsō ante quam nātus est Ennius#, _Br._ 72, _he exhibited a play just a year before Ennius was born_. #ducentīs annīs ante quam Rōmam caperent, in Ītaliam Gallī trānscendērunt#, L. 5, 33, 5, _two hundred years before they took Rome, the Gauls crossed over to Italy_. The pluperfect also occurs, when the main verb is pluperfect: as, #Stāiēnus bienniō antequam causam recēpisset, sescentīs mīllibus nummūm sē iūdicium conruptūrum dīxerat#, _Clu._ 68, _Stajenus had said two years before he undertook the case, that he would bribe the court for six hundred thousand sesterces_.

1921. The pluperfect subjunctive is rarely introduced by #antequam# or #priusquam# except in indirect discourse: as,

#antequam dē meō adventū audīre potuissent, in Macedoniam perrēxī#, _Pl._ 98, _before they should be able to hear of my arrival, I proceeded to Macedonia_ (1725). #āvertit equōs in castra priusquam pābula gustāssent Trōiae Xanthumque bibissent#, V. 1, 472, _he drave the horses off to camp, or ever they should taste of Troja’s grass and Xanthus drink_ (1725).

1922. It may be mentioned here that #postrīdiē quam# and #prīdiē quam# occur a few times in Plautus and Cicero with the indicative; #postrīdiē quam# with the indicative in Suetonius; and #prīdiē quam# with the subjunctive in Livy, Valerius Maximus, and Suetonius.

#posteā quam# or #postquam#.

#ubī̆#, #ut#, #cum prīmum#, #simul atque#.

1923. With #posteā quam#, #postquam# (#posquam#), _after_, the following words may conveniently be treated: #ubī̆#, #ut#, _when_; #ubī̆ prīmum#, #ut prīmum#, #cum prīmum#, _when first_, and in Plautus #quom extemplō#; #simul atque# (or #ac#, less frequently #et# or #ut#, or #simul# alone), _at the same time with_, _as soon as_.

#postquam#, #ubī̆#, #ut#, #cum prīmum#, #simul atque#, accompany the indicative.

For examples of the use of tenses, see 1924-1934.

1924. In clauses introduced by #posteā quam# or #postquam#, the imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive, found a dozen times in the manuscripts of Cicero’s works and elsewhere, is generally corrected in modern editions or usually the conjunctive particle is emended to #posteā quom# (#cum#). But the subjunctive may of course be used with this and the other particles mentioned in 1923 for special reasons, as with the indefinite second person (1731), by attraction (1728), and in indirect discourse (1725). For the subjunctive of repeated past action with #ubī̆# and #ut#, see 1932. The infinitive of intimation occurs in Tacitus (1539): as, #postquam exuī aequālitās, prōvēnēre dominātiōnēs#, Ta. 3, 26, _after equality between man and man was dropped, there came a crop of tyrants_.

1925. In narration the perfect indicative is regularly used in clauses introduced by #postquam#, #ubī̆#, #ut#, #cum prīmum#, #simul atque# (1739): as,

#postquam tuās litterās lēgī, Postumia tua mē convēnit#, _Fam._ 4, 2, 1, _after I read your letter, your Postumia called on me_. #postquam aurum abstulimus, in nāvem cōnscendimus#, Pl. _B._ 277, _after we got away the money, we took ship_. #ubī̆ ad ipsum vēnī dēvorticulum, cōnstitī#, T. _Eu._ 635, _when I came exactly to the side street, I pulled up_. #ubī̆ sē diūtius dūcī intellēxit, graviter eōs accūsat#, 1, 16, 5, _when he came to see that he was put off a good while, he takes them roundly to task_. #quī ut perōrāvit, surrēxit Clōdius#, _QFr._ 2, 3, 2, _when he had finished speaking, up jumped Clodius_. #ut abiī abs tē, fit forte obviam mihi Phormiō#, T. _Ph._ 617, _when I left you, Phormio happened to fall in my way_. #crīmen eius modī est, ut, cum prīmum ad mē dēlātum est, ūsūrum mē illō nōn putārem#, _V._ 5, 158, _the charge is of such a sort that, when first it was reported to me, I thought I should not use it_. #cum prīmum Crētae lītus attigit, nūntiōs mīsit#, L. 37, 60, 4, _as soon as he touched the shore of Crete, he sent messengers_. #ut prīmum loquī posse coepī, inquam#, _RP._ 6, 15, _as soon as I began to be able to speak, I said_. #quem simul atque oppidānī cōnspexērunt, mūrum complēre coepērunt#, 7, 12, 5, _as soon as the garrison espied him, they began to man the wall_. #at hostēs, ubī̆ prīmum nostrōs equitēs cōnspexērunt, impetū factō celeriter nostrōs perturbāvērunt#, 4, 12, 1, _but as soon as the enemy caught sight of our cavalry, they attacked and threw our men into disorder_. The conjunction #simul atque# is very rarely found in old Latin.

1926. The present indicative of vivid narration (1590) sometimes occurs: as,

#postquam iam puerī septuennēs sunt, pater onerāvit nāvim magnam#, Pl. _Men. prol._ 24, _after the boys were seven year olds, their father freighted a big ship_. #quid ait, ubi mē nōminās#, T. _Hau._ 303, _what sayeth she when you name me?_ #ubī̆ neutrī trānseundī initium faciunt, Caesar suōs in castra redūxit#, 2, 9, 2, _neither party taking the initiative in crossing, Caesar marched his men back to camp_. Verbs of perceiving, especially #videō#, occur oftenest in this use, which is common in Plautus and Terence: as, #postquam videt nūptiās adparārī, missast ancilla īlicō#, T. _Andr._ 513, _after she sees a marriage on foot, her maid is sent forthwith_. #abeō ab illīs, postquam videō mē lūdificārier#, Pl. _Cap._ 487, _seeing myself made game of, I leave them_. #quem posteā quam videt nōn adesse, ardēre atque furere coepit#, _V._ 2, 92, _seeing that the man does not appear, he began to rage and fume_. #ubī̆ hoc videt, init cōnsilium importūnī tyrannī#, _V._ 5, 103, _seeing this, he adopted the policy of a savage tyrant_. Plautus uses also #quom extemplō#. Such protases often take on a causal sense (see also 1930).

1927. The present or perfect with #postquam# or #ut# is sometimes used in expressions equivalent to an emphasized accusative or ablative of time, the main verb being #est# or #sunt#: as, #septingentī sunt annī postquam inclita condita Rōma est#, E. in Varro, _RR._ 3, 1, 2, _’tis seven hundred years since glorious Rome was founded_. #domō ut abiērunt hic tertius annus#, Pl. _St._ 29, _this is the third year since they left home_. #annus est octāvus ut imperium obtinēs#, Ta. 14, 53, _it is the eighth year since you acquired empire_. For a similar use of #cum#, see 1871.

1928. The pluperfect with #postquam#, denoting resulting state (1615), occurs less frequently: as,

#tum cum P. Āfricānus, posteā quam bis cōnsul fuerat, L. Cottam in iūdicium vocābat#, _Caecil._ 69, _at the time when Africanus, after he had twice been consul, was bringing Cotta to judgement_. #postquam omnium oculōs occupāverat certāmen, tum āversam adoriuntur Rōmānam aciem#, L. 22, 48, 4, _when every eye was fairly riveted on the engagement, that instant they fell upon the Romans in the rear_. Not in Plautus, once in Terence, and rare in classical writers.

1929. The pluperfect, less frequently the perfect, with #postquam# is used attributively with nouns denoting time.

In this use #post# is often separated from #quam#, and two constructions are possible: (_a._) Ablative: #annō post quam vōta erat aedēs Monētae dēdicātur#, L. 7, 28, 6, _the temple of Moneta is dedicated a year after it was vowed_. Without #post#: #quadringentēsimō annō quam urbs Rōmanā condita erat, patriciī cōnsulēs magistrātum iniēre#, L. 7, 18, 1, _four hundred years after Rome town was founded, patrician consuls entered into office_. (_b._) Accusative, with an ordinal, and #post# as a preposition, or, sometimes, #intrā#: #post diem tertium gesta rēs est quam dīxerat#, _Mil._ 44, _the deed was done the next day but one after he said it_. See 2419.

1930. The imperfect with #postquam# expresses action continuing into the time of the main action. Such a protasis, especially when negative, usually denotes the cause of the main action: as,

#Appius, postquam nēmō adībat, domum sē recēpit#, L. 3, 46, 9, _Appius, finding that nobody presented himself, went back home_. #posteā quam ē scaenā explōdēbātur, cōnfūgit in huius domum#, _RC._ 30, _after being repeatedly hissed off the stage, he took refuge in my client’s house_.

In old Latin this use is found only once, in Plautus; it is most common in Livy, but occurs frequently in Tacitus. So occasionally the present, generally when the main action is present (see also 1926): as, #postquam nec ab Rōmānīs vōbīs ūlla est spēs, nec vōs moenia dēfendunt, pācem adferō ad vōs#, L. 21, 13, 4, _now that it has become plain that you have no hope from the Romans, and that your walls are no protection to you, I bring peace unto you_. #postquam līberast, ubī̆ habitet dīcere admodum incertē sciō#, Pl. _E._ 505, _now that she’s free, I’m quite too ill informed to say where she lives_. #quae omnia intellegit nihil prōdesse, posteā quam testibus convincitur#, _V._ 5, 103, _he knows that all this is fruitless, now that he is being refuted by witnesses_. The perfect with #postquam# or #ut# occurs occasionally in this use with the present in the main clause: as, #animus in tūtō locōst, postquam iste hinc abiīt#, Pl. _Ps._ 1052, _my mind is easy, now that fellow’s gone_. #nam ut in nāvī vecta’s, crēdō timida ‘s#, Pl. _B._ 106, _for after your voyage, of course you’re nervous_.

1931. #postquam# and #ut# have sometimes the meaning of _ever since_ or _as long as_: as,

#postquam nātus sum, satur numquam fuī#, Pl. _St._ 156, _since I was born I’ve never had enough to eat_. #tibī̆ umquam quicquam, postquam tuos sum, verbōrum dedī?# Pl. _Most._ 925, _have I once ever cheated you as long as I have been your slave?_ #neque meum pedem intulī in aedīs, ut cum exercitū hinc profectus sum#, Pl. _Am._ 733, _I have n’t set foot in the house ever since I marched out with the army_. #ut illōs dē rē pūblicā librōs ēdidistī, nihil ā tē posteā accēpimus#, _Br._ 19, _we have had nothing from you since you published the work On the State_.

#ubī̆#, #ut#, #simul atque#.

1932. #ubī̆#, #ut#, or #simul atque# (#ac#) often introduces a clause denoting indefinite or repeated action: as,

#adeō obcaecat animōs fortūna, ubī̆ vim suam refringī nōn vult#, L. 5, 37, 1, _so completely does fortune blind the mind when she will not have her power thwarted_. #ubī̆ salūtātiō dēflūxit, litterīs mē involvō#, _Fam._ 9, 20, 3, _when my callers go, I always plunge into my book_ (1613). #omnēs profectō mulierēs tē amant, ut quaeque aspexit#, Pl. _MG._ 1264, _all the ladies love you, every time one spies you_. #simul atque sē īnflēxit hīc rēx in dominātum iniūstiōrem, fit continuō tyrannus#, _RP._ 2, 48, _for the moment our king turns to a severer kind of mastery, he becomes a tyrant on the spot_. #Messānam ut quisque nostrūm vēnerat, haec vīsere solēbat#, _V._ 4, 5, _any Roman, who visited Messana, invariably went to see these statues_ (1618). #hostēs, ubī̆ aliquōs singulārēs cōnspexerant, adoriēbantur#, 4, 26, 2, _every time the enemy saw some detached parties, they would charge_. The imperfect in this use is not common in classical writers, and occurs but once, with #ubī̆#, in old Latin; the pluperfect is rare before the silver age. Clauses with #ut# generally contain some form of #quisque# (2396). Plautus uses #quom extemplō# with the present and perfect. The subjunctive is found with #ubī̆# and #ut quisque# in cases of repeated past action (1730).

1933. #ubī̆#, #ut#, or #simul atque# rarely introduces an imperfect or pluperfect of definite time: as,

#quid ubi reddēbās aurum, dīxistī patrī#, Pl. _B._ 685, _what did you tell your father when you were returning the money?_ #ubī̆ lūx adventābat, tubicinēs sīgna canere#, S. _I._ 99, 1, _when daylight was drawing on, the trumpeters sounded the call_. #ubī̆ nēmō obvius ībat, plēnō gradū ad hostium castra tendunt#, L. 9, 45, 14, _finding nobody came to meet them, they advanced double quick upon the enemy’s camp_ (1930). The use of these tenses referring to definite time is very rare in old Latin, and found only with #ut# in Cicero.

1934. #ubī̆# or #simul atque#, referring to definite time, introduces the future or future perfect, when the apodosis is also future: as,

#simul et quid erit certī, scrībam ad tē#, _Att._ 2, 20, 2, _as soon as there is anything positive, I will write to you_. #ego ad tē statim habēbō quod scrībam, simul ut vīderō Cūriōnem#, _Att._ 10, 4, 12, _I shall have something to write you, as soon as ever I see Curio_. #nam ubī̆ mē aspiciet, ad carnuficem rapiet continuō senex#, Pl. _B._ 688, _when the old man sees me, he’ll hurry me off to Jack Ketch without any ado_. #ubi prīmum poterit, sē illinc subdūcet#, T. _Eu._ 628, _she’ll steal away as soon as she can_. Plautus has also #quom extemplō# in this use, and Pliny the Younger #ut primum#.

#utī# or #ut#.

1935. The relative adverb #utī# or #ut# (711) is found in the oldest Latin in the form #utei#, but #ut# was the prevalent form even in the time of Plautus. As a conjunctive particle, it accompanies both the indicative and the subjunctive. For #ut# in wishes, see 1540; in questions, 1568.

WITH THE INDICATIVE.

(A.) #ut#, _where_.

1936. #utī# or #ut# in the rare signification of _where_, accompanies the indicative: as, #atque in eōpse adstās lapide, ut praecō praedicat#, Pl. _B._ 815, _and there you stand right on the auction block, just where the crier always cries_. #sīve in extrēmōs penetrābit Indōs, lītus ut longē resonante Eōā tunditur undā#, Cat. 11, 2, _or shall he pierce to farthest Ind, where by the long-resounding eastern wave the strand is lashed_. In classical Latin, #ut# in this sense is used only by the poets, as here and there in Lucilius, Catullus, Cicero’s _Aratēa_, and Vergil. #ubī̆# is the word regularly used. For #ut#, _when_, see 1923.

(B.) #ut#, _as_.

1937. The indicative is used in the protasis of a comparative period introduced by #utī# or #ut#, _as_.

#ut# often has as a correlative #ita#, #item#, #itidem#, #sīc#, #perinde#, or #similiter#, and sometimes in old Latin and poetry #aequē#, #adaequē#, #pariter#, #nōn aliter#, #nōn secus#, #īdem#. #sīc# is sometimes drawn to the protasis, making #sīcutī#, #sīcut#; #utī# is sometimes strengthened by #vel#, making #velutī#, #velut#, _even as_, _just as_. #quemadmodum# often, and #quōmodo# sometimes, stands for #ut#. For the use of #ut# in old Latin in sentences in which classical Latin would employ the indirect question, see 1791. For coordinated comparative sentences without #ut#, see 1704.

#perge ut īnstituistī#, _RP._ 2, 22, _go on as you have begun_. #ut volēs mēd esse, ita erō#, Pl. _Ps._ 240, _as you will have me be, so will I be_ (1625). #ut sēmentem fēceris, ita metēs#, _DO._ 2, 261, _as you sow, y’are like to reap_ (1626). #ut nōn omnem frūgem in omnī agrō reperīre possīs, sīc nōn omne facinus in omnī vītā nāscitur#, _RA._ 75, _every crime does not start into being in every life, any more than you can find every fruit in every field_ (1731). Also in asseverations: #ita mē dī amābunt, ut ego hunc auscultō lubēns#, Pl. _Aul._ 496, _so help me heaven, as I am glad to hear this man_ (1622).

1938. #ut . . . ita# or #sīc#, _as . . . so_, often stand where concessive and adversative conjunctions might be used; _while . . . nevertheless_, _although ... yet_, _certainly . . . but_: as,

#ut nihil bonī est in morte, sīc certē nihil malī#, _L._ 14, _while there is nothing good after death, yet certainly there is nothing bad_. #quō factō sīcut glōriam auxit, ita grātiam minuit#, Suet. _Oth._ 1, _by this action he increased his reputation, but lessened his popularity_. #nec ut iniūstus in pāce rēx, ita dux bellī prāvus fuit#, L. 1, 53, 1, _but while he was an unjust king in peace, he was not a bad leader in war_. This adversative correlation is found sometimes in Cicero, but is far more common in late writers.

1939. #ut quisque#, commonly with a superlative expression, is used in the protasis of a comparative period of equality, with #ita# or #sīc# and commonly another superlative expression in the apodosis: as,

#ut quaeque rēs est turpissima, sīc maximē vindicanda est#, _Caec._ 7, _the more disgraceful a thing is, the more emphatically does it call for punishment_. #ut quisque optimē Graecē scīret, ita esse nēquissimum#, _DO._ 2, 265, _that the better Greek scholar a man was, the greater rascal he always was_ (1722). This construction is often abridged: as, #sapientissimus quisque aequissimō animō moritur#, _CM._ 83, _the sage always dies with perfect resignation_. #optimus quisque praeceptor frequentiā gaudet#, Quint. 1, 2, 9, _the best teachers always revel in large classes_. See 2397.

1940. #ut# often introduces a parenthetical idea, particularly a general truth or a habit which accounts for the special fact expressed in the main sentence: as,

#nēmō, ut opīnor, in culpā est#, _Clu._ 143, _nobody, as I fancy, is to blame_. #excitābat flūctūs in simpulō, ut dīcitur, Grātidius#, _Leg._ 3, 36, _Gratidius was raising a tempest in a teapot, as the saying is_. #paulisper, dum sē uxor, ut fit, comparat, commorātus est#, _Mil._ 28, _he had to wait a bit, as is always the case, while his wife was putting on her things_. #hōrum auctōritāte adductī, ut sunt Gallōrum subita cōnsilia, Trebium retinent#, 3, 8, 3, _influenced by these people they detain Trebius, as might have been expected, sudden resolutions being always characteristic of the Gauls_. #sēditiōne nūntiātā, ut erat laenā amictus, ita vēnit in cōntiōnem#, _Br._ 56, _an outbreak was reported, and he came to the meeting all accoutred as he was, with his sacrificial robe on_. Often elliptically: as, #acūtī hominis, ut Siculī#, _TD._ 1, 15, _a bright man, of course, being a Sicilian_. #Aequōrum exercitus, ut quī permultōs annōs imbellēs ēgissent, trepidāre#, L. 9, 45, 10, _the army of the Aequians alarmed and irresolute, and naturally, since they had passed a great many years without fighting_ (1824, 1827).

1941. #ut#, _as for example_, is used in illustrations, particularly in abridged sentences (1057): as,

#genus est quod plūrēs partēs amplectitur, ut ‘animal.’ pars est, quae subest generī, ut ‘equos,’# _Inv._ 1, 32, _a class is what embraces a number of parts, as ‘living thing’; a part is what is included in a class, as ‘horse.’_ #sunt bēstiae in quibus inest aliquid simile virtūtis, ut in leōnibus, ut in canibus#, _Fin._ 5, 38, _there are brutes in which there is a something like the moral quality of man, as for instance the lion and the dog_.

1942. The parenthetical clause with #ut# or #prout# sometimes makes an allowance for the meaning of a word, usually an adjective, in the main sentence: as,

#cīvitās ampla atque flōrēns, ut est captus Germānōrum#, 4, 3, 3, _a grand and prosperous community, that is according to German conceptions_. #ut captus est servōrum, nōn malus#, T. _Ad._ 480, _not a bad fellow, as slaves go_. #Sthenius ab adulēscentiā haec comparārat, supellēctilem ex aere ēlegantiōrem, tabulās pīctās, etiam argentī bene factī prout Thermītānī hominis facultātēs ferēbant, satis#, _V._ 2, 83, _Sthenius had been a collector from early years of such things as artistic bronzes, pictures; also of curiously wrought silver a goodly amount, that is as the means of a Thermae man went_. Often in abridged sentences: as, #scrīptor fuit, ut temporibus illīs, lūculentus#, _Br._ 102, _he was a brilliant historian for the times_. #multae etiam, ut in homine Rōmānō, litterae#, _CM._ 12, _furthermore, extensive reading, that is for a Roman_. #ut illīs temporibus, praedīves#, L. 4, 13, 1, _a millionaire, for those times_.

1943. #ut#, _as indeed_, _as in fact_, with the indicative, is used to represent that an action supposed, conceded, or commanded, really occurs: as,

#sit Ennius sānē, ut est certē, perfectior#, _Br._ 76, _grant, for aught I care, that Ennius is a more finished poet, as indeed he is_. #utī erat rēs, Metellum esse ratī#, S. _I._ 69, 1, _supposing that it was Metellus, as in fact it was_. This use begins in the classical period. It is found particularly with #quamvīs#, 1905; with #sī#, see 2017.

1944. #ut#, _as_, _like_, sometimes shows that a noun used predicatively is not literally applicable, but expresses an imputed quality or character: as,

#Cicerō ea quae nunc ūsū veniunt cecinit ut vātēs#, N. 25, 16, 4, _Cicero foretold what is now actually occurring, like a bard inspired_. #canem et faelem ut deōs colunt#, _Leg._ 1, 32, _they bow the knee to dog and cat as gods_. #quod mē sīcut alterum parentem dīligit#, _Fam._ 5, 8, 4, _because he loves me like a second father_. #rēgiae virginēs, ut tōnstrīculae, tondēbant barbam patris#, _TD._ 5, 58, _the princesses used to shave their father, just like common barber-girls_. In an untrue or a merely figurative comparison #tamquam# (1908) or #quasi# is used.

1945. In old Latin, #prae# is combined with #ut#: #praeut#, _compared with how_: as, #parum etiam, praeut futūrumst, praedicās#, Pl. _Am._ 374, _you say too little still compared with how ’twill be_. #praeut# is sometimes followed by a relative clause: as, #lūdum iocumque dīcet fuisse illum alterum, praeut huius rabiēs quae dabit#, T. _Eu._ 300, _he’ll say the other was but sport and play, compared with what this youth will in his frenzy do_.

1946. In Plautus #sīcut#, with the indicative, has once or twice the meaning of _since_: as, #quīn tū illam iubē abs tē abīre quō lubet: sīcut soror eius hūc gemina vēnit Ephesum#, _MG._ 974, _why, bid her go away from you wherever she may choose, since her twin sister here to Ephesus is come_.

WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE.

#utī# or #ut#.

NEGATIVE #ut nē#, #nē#, or #ut nōn#.

1947. The subjunctive with #ut# is: (A.) That of action desired (1540), in clauses of purpose; in these the negative is #nē#, or sometimes #ut nē#, and _and that not_, #nēve# or #neu#, rarely #neque# or #nec#. #ut nē#, though used at all periods (not by Caesar, Sallust, or Livy), is chiefly found in older Latin; afterwards #nē# alone took its place (1706). #ut nōn# is used when the negative belongs to a single word. (B.) That of action conceivable (1554), in clauses of result; in these the negative is #ut nōn#, #ut nēmō#, #ut nūllus#, &c.; or with emphasis on the negative, #nēmō ut#, #nūllus ut#, #nihil ut#; also #vix ut#, #paene ut#, #prope ut#.

1948. Final and consecutive clauses with #ut# are of two classes: I. Complementary clauses, that is, such as are an essential complement of certain specific verbs or expressions; such clauses have the value of a substantive, and may represent a subject, an object, or any oblique case. II. Pure final or consecutive clauses, in which the purpose or result of any action may be expressed, and which are not essential to complete the sense of a verb.

(A.) PURPOSE.

I. COMPLEMENTARY FINAL CLAUSES.

1949. (1.) The subjunctive with #ut# or #nē# is used in clauses which serve to complete the sense of verbs of will or aim.

1950. (_a._) Verbs of will include those of desire, request, advice, resolution, stipulation, command, or permission.