Part 39

1635. The present subjunctive is sometimes used in reference to past action, like the indicative present of vivid narration (1590): as, #migrantīs cernās#, V. 4, 401, _you can descry them swarming out_ (1556). #comprehendī iussit; quis nōn pertimēscat?# _V._ 5, 14, _he ordered them to be arrested; who would not be thoroughly scared?_ (1565). See also 2075.

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE, OR COORDINATION.

1636. Two or more independent simple sentences may be coordinated to form a compound sentence in one of two ways: either without a connective, or with a connective.

What applies to the coordination of sentences, also applies to the coordination of the parts of sentences in abridged sentences (1057).

(A.) WITHOUT A CONNECTIVE.

1637. When simple sentences or parts of sentences are coordinated without any connective, this mode of arrangement is called _Asyndetic Coordination_ or _Asyndeton_.

Asyndeton, whether in unabridged or in abridged sentences, is more usual with three or more members than with two. It occurs particularly often in Plautus, Terence, Ennius, and Cato, also in Cicero, especially in his early works and letters.

1638. The sentences in which asyndeton occurs are commonly such as might be connected by words meaning _and_ or _but_; less often by words meaning _as_, _for_, &c. Asyndeton is especially common:

1639. (_a._) In animated narration of events happening at the same moment, in description, and in climaxes. Also in mention of colleagues in office, and in many set phrases and formulas: as,

#vēnī, vīdī, vīcī#, Caesar in Suet. _Iul._ 37, _came, saw, overcame_. #nostrī celeriter ad arma concurrunt, vāllum cōnscendunt#, 5, 39, 3, _our men rush speedily to arms, clamber up the palisade_. #huic s. c. intercessit C. Caelius, C. Pānsa, tribūnī pl.#, _Fam._ 8, 8, 7, _this decree of the senate was objected to by Caelius and Pansa, tribunes of the commons_. #hī ferre agere plēbem#, L. 3, 37, 7, _there were these people worrying and harrying the commons_ (1535).

1640. (_b._) In contrasts or antitheses: as,

#opīniōnis commenta dēlet diēs, nātūrae iūdicia cōnfirmat#, _DN._ 2, 5, _the fictions of speculation are swept away by time, but the judgements of nature are confirmed_. Particularly when either member is positive, the other negative: #vincere scīs, Hannibal, victōriā ūtī nescīs#, L. 22, 51, 4, _you know how to conquer, Hannibal, but not how to use victory_, says Maharbal after Cannae, 216 B.C.

1641. Asyndeton is very common with two or more imperatives: as, #ēgredere ex urbe, Catilīna, līberā rem pūblicam metū, in exsilium proficīscere#, _C._ 1, 20, _go forth from Rome, Catiline, relieve the commonwealth from its fear, depart into exile_. Particularly when the first is #age#, _come on_, _mark me_, or #ī#, _go_ (1572). But from Horace on, #ī nunc#, _go to now_, is followed by #et# with a second imperative in derisive orders. In old Latin, the imperatives may be joined by #et# or even #atque#.

1642. Asyndeton is also common with parentheses. These often take the place of a modern foot-note: as, #lēgātus capite vēlātō fīlō (lānae vēlāmen est) ‘audī, Iuppiter,’ inquit#, L. 1, 32, 6, _the envoy with his head covered with a ‘filum’ (that is to say a wrap of wool) says ‘bow down thine ear, Jupiter.’_ Parentheses however are often introduced, from Terence on by #nam#, and from Sallust and Cicero on, by #et#, #neque#, #autem#, #enim#, &c.

(B.) WITH A CONNECTIVE.

(1.) CONJUNCTIONS AS CONNECTIVES.

1643. Simple sentences or parts of sentences may be connected by copulative, disjunctive, or adversative conjunctions.

(_a._) COPULATIVE CONJUNCTIONS.

1644. Copulative conjunctions denote union, and connect both the sentences and their meaning. They are #et#, #-que#, #atque# or #ac#, _and_, and #neque# or #nec#, _neither_.

1645. (1.) #et#, _and_, is the commonest copulative, and connects either likes or unlikes; with two members only, it is either used between them, or is prefixed for emphasis to both: as,

#Dumnorīx apud Sēquanōs plūrimum poterat et Helvētiīs erat amīcus#, 1, 9, 3, _Dumnorix was very influential among the Sequani and a friend to the Helvetians_. #Dēmocritus alba discernere et ātra nōn poterat#, _TD._ 5, 114, _Democritus could not tell white and black apart_. #et discipulus et magister perhibēbantur inprobī#, Pl. _B._ 425, _both pupil and master were rated as knaves_.

1646. With three or more members, #et# is either used between the members or, frequently, prefixed for emphasis to all. Often, however, it is omitted throughout (1637), or a third member is appended by #-que# (1651): as,

#persuādent Rauricīs et Tulingīs et Latovicīs utī ūnā cum hīs proficīscantur#, 1, 5, 4, _they induce the Rauricans, Tulingans, and Latovicans to join them in their march_. #is et in custōdiam cīvēs Rōmānōs dedit et supplicātiōnem mihī̆ dēcrēvit et indicēs maximīs praemiīs adfēcit#, _C._ 4, 10, _this person voted in the first place to put Roman citizens in ward, then to decree a thanksgiving in my honour, and lastly to reward the informers with liberal gifts_.

1647. Two members belonging closely together as a pair, and connected by #et#, #atque#, or #-que#, are sometimes put asyndetically with another member or members: as,

#Aeduī ferunt sē dēiectōs prīncipātū; queruntur fortūnae commūtātiōnem et Caesaris indulgentiam in sē requīrunt#, 7, 63, 8, _the Aeduans set forth that they were cast down from the chief place; they complain of the change of fortune, and say they miss Caesar’s former kindness to them_. #nūntiātum est equitēs Ariovistī propius tumulum accēdere et ad nostrōs adequitāre; lapidēs in nostrōs conicere#, 1, 46, 1, _it was reported that Ariovistus’s cavalry were moving nearer the hillock and galloping up to the Romans; that they were throwing stones at our men_.

1648. #et# has sometimes the meaning of _also_ or of _and also_, particularly when there is a change of speakers, or before a pronoun: as, #et hoc sciō#, Plin. _Ep._ 1, 12, 11, _I know that too_. Sometimes also after #vērum#, #nam#, and #simul#, especially when a pronoun follows. Not in Caesar.

1649. (2.) #-que#, _and_, combines members which belong together and make a whole, though they may be different or opposed to each other; the second member is often a mere appendage: as,

#rogat ōratque tē#, _RA._ 144, _he begs and entreats you_, or _he earnestly entreats you_. #lībertī servolīque nōbilium#, _RA._ 141, _the freedmen and slaves of the great_, or _retainers, bond and free_. #omnēs ea, quae bona videntur, sequuntur fugiuntque contrāria#, _TD._ 4, 12, _everybody runs after what seems good and avoids the opposite_. #-que# is usually put after the first word of the new member. It is particularly common in old or legal style.

1650. The combination #-que . . . -que#, _both . . . and_, is very common in poetry: as, #noctēsque diēsque#, E. in _CM._ 1, _both night and day_. In prose, it is used by Sallust when the first word is a pronoun: as, #mēque rēgnumque meum#, _I._ 10, 2, _both myself and my throne_; and by Livy to connect two relative sentences: as, #omnēs quīque Rōmae quīque in exercitū erant#, 22, 26, 5, _everybody, both people in Rome and people in the army_.

1651. After two members without a connective, a third member is sometimes appended by #-que#: as,

#satis habēbat hostem rapīnīs, pābulātiōnibus, populātiōnibusque prohibēre#, 1, 15, 4, _he was satisfied with keeping the enemy from plundering, foraging, and ravaging_.

1652. (3.) #atque#, or before any consonant except #h# often #ac#, _and_, _and besides_, adds something belonging essentially to what goes before, but more important as a supplement or extension; as,

#sē ex nāvī prōiēcit atque in hostēs aquilam ferre coepit#, 4, 25, 4, _he sprang overboard and furthermore proceeded to bear the eagle upon the enemy_. #magna dīs immortālibus habenda est atque huic Iovī Statōrī grātia#, _C._ 1, 11, _we owe a great debt of gratitude to the gods immortal in general, and to yon Jove the Stayer in particular_. #atque . . . atque# occurs for #et . . . et# once in Vergil, and once in Silius Italicus.

1653. #atque# is used in comparisons, after words of likeness and unlikeness: as,

#parī spatiō trānsmissus, atque ex Galliā est in Britanniam#, 5, 13, 2, _the journey across is just as long as it is from Gaul to Britain_. #īdemque iussērunt simulācrum Iovis facere maius et contrā, atque anteā fuerat, ad orientem convertere#, _C._ 3, 20, _and they furthermore gave orders to make a statue of Jupiter, a bigger one, and to turn it round to the east, the opposite of the way it originally faced_. Sometimes #et# is thus used after #alius#, #aliter#, #aequē#, #pariter#, &c.: see the dictionary.

1654. With adjectives and adverbs in the comparative degree, #atque# sometimes takes the place of #quam# _than_, when the first member of comparison is negative (1895): as, #amīcior mihi nūllus vīvit atque is est#, Pl. _Mer._ 897, _I have no greater friend alive than that man is_. So in Plautus, Terence, Lucretius, Catullus, Vergil, rarely in Cicero, and in Horace even when the first member is positive.

1655. A sentence is often introduced by #et#, #-que#, or #atque#, where _but_ would be used in English, particularly so when a positive sentence follows a negative one: as,

#Sōcratēs nec patrōnum quaesīvit nec iūdicibus supplex fuit adhibuitque līberam contumāciam#, _TD._ 1, 71, _Socrates did not try to find an advocate nor bow the knee to his judges, but he was plain-spoken and defiant_. #nostrōrum mīlitum impetum hostēs ferre nōn potuērunt ac terga vertērunt#, 4, 35, 2, _the enemy could not stand the dash of our people, but turned their backs_. #hominis nē Graecī quidem ac Mȳsī potius#, _QFr._ 1, 1, 19, _a creature who is not even a Greek, but more of a Mysian_.

1656. Two sentences, one of which would ordinarily be introduced by a subordinating temporal conjunction, are sometimes, mostly in poetry, coordinated by #et# or #-que#: as, #dīxit et in silvam pennīs ablāta refūgit#, V. 3, 258, _she spake, and on her pinions sweeping, vanished to the wood_, i.e. #simul atque dīxit, refūgit#.

1657. (4.) #neque# or #nec#, _neither_, _nor_, _and . . . not_, _but . . . not_, is used as a negative copulative, sometimes as a negative adversative: as,

#opīniōnibus volgī rapimur in errōrem nec vēra cernimus#, _Leg._ 2, 43, _we are swept into error by the delusions of the world and cannot make out the truth_. #nōn enim temere nec fortuī̆tō creātī sumus#, _TD._ 1, 118, _for we were not created at adventure nor by accident_. #subsidiō suīs iērunt collemque cēpērunt, neque nostrōrum mīlitum impetum sustinēre potuērunt#, 7, 62, 8, _they went to aid their people and carried the hill, but they could not stand the fiery onset of our soldiers_. #neque# or #nec# is often repeated: as, #nec meliōrēs nec beātiōrēs esse possumus#, _RP._ 1, 32, _we can neither be better nor wiser_.

1658. #nec# is rarely used in the sense of #nē . . . quidem#, _not even_, _not . . . either_: as, #nec nunc#, H. _S._ 2, 3, 262, _not even now_, a free quotation of #nē nunc quidem#, T. _Eu._ 46. #nec . . . quidem#, _and not even_, is used once or twice for the common #ac nē . . . quidem# or #et nē . . . quidem#.

1659. Instead of #neque# or #nec#, _and not_, the copulatives #et#, #atque#, rarely #-que#, followed by a negative, #nōn#, #nēmō#, #nihil#, &c., are sometimes used in Cicero and Livy, less often in old Latin, and rarely in Caesar and Sallust: as, #quid tū fēcissēs, sī tē Tarentum et nōn Samarobrīvam mīsissem?# _Fam._ 7, 12, 1, _what would you have done, if I had sent you to Tarentum, and not to Samarobriva?_ Particularly thus #et nōn#, or oftener #ac nōn#, in corrections. But ordinarily #neque# or #nec# is preferred to #et nōn#, and #nec quisquam#, &c., to #et nēmō#, &c. (1445).

1660. When #neque# is followed by another negative, the assertion is positive (1452): as,

#nec hoc ille nōn vīdit#, _Fin._ 4, 60, _and the man did not fail to see this_. This positive use begins with Varro. In old Latin two negatives, and particularly #neque . . . haud#, are often used, as in old English, to strengthen the negation (1453).

1661. After a general negative, a word may be emphasized by #nē ... quidem# or #nōn modo#, or the parts of a compound sentence may be distributed by #neque . . . neque#, without destroying the negation: as,

#nihil in locīs commūnibus, nē in fānīs quidem, nihil istum neque prīvātī neque pūblicī tōtā in Siciliā relīquisse#, _V._ 4, 2, _that the defendant has left nothing untouched in public places, no, not even in the temples, nothing either in the way of private or of public property, in all Sicily_. Similarly when a coordinate member is appended with #neque#: as, #nequeō satis mīrārī neque conicere#, T. _Eu._ 547, _I can’t quite puzzle out or guess_.

COMBINATION OF DIFFERENT COPULATIVES.

1662. Different copulatives are sometimes combined, as follows.

1663. (1.) The affirmative copulatives #et# and #-que# are sometimes combined, particularly in abridged sentences: as,

#et Epamīnōndās praeclārē cecinisse dīcitur, Themistoclēsque est habitus indoctior#, _TD._ 1, 4, _Epaminondas in the first place is said to have played beautifully, and Themistocles was not considered exactly an educated man_. This combination is used by Cicero rarely, by Horace in the satires, and rarely by late writers.

1664. The sequence #-que . . . et# is rare in old Latin, and not used by Caesar, Vergil, or Horace. #-que . . . atque# is first used by Lucretius, then by Vergil, Ovid, Livy, and Tacitus.

1665. (2.) Affirmative and negative copulatives are sometimes combined. Thus #neque# or #nec# combined with #et#, in the sequences #neque . . . et# and #et . . . neque#, which is rare in old Latin, is common in Cicero: as,

#nec mīror et gaudeō#, _Fam._ 10, 1, 4, _in the first place I am not surprised, and in the second place I feel glad_; #neque . . . et nōn#, however, is rare. #patēbat via et certa neque longa#, _Ph._ 11, 4, _there lay a road open at once plain and not long_. #neque . . . -que# begins with Cicero, but is rare (1655), #neque . . . ac# begins with Tacitus.

1666. Of all the Latin writers, Tacitus aims most at variety by combination of asyndeton and by the use of different copulatives: as, #rēgem Rhamsēn Libyā Aethiopiā Mēdīsque et Persīs et Bactriānō ac Scythā potītum#, 2, 60, _that king Rhamses got control of Libya and Aethiopia and the Medes and Persians, and the Bactrian and Scythian_.

(_b._) DISJUNCTIVE CONJUNCTIONS.

1667. Disjunctive conjunctions connect the sentences, but disconnect the meaning. They are #aut#, #vel#, #sīve# or #seu#, #-ve#, and #an#, _or_. Of these conjunctions, #aut#, #vel#, and #sīve# are often placed before two or more members of a sentence in the sense of _either . . . or_. And in poetry, #-ve . . . -ve# sometimes occurs.

1668. (1.) #aut#, _or_, sometimes _or even_, _or at least_, is used between two members which are to be represented as essentially different in meaning, and of which one excludes the other: as,

#hīc vincendum aut moriendum, mīlitēs, est#, L. 21, 43, 5, _here you must conquer, my men, or die_. #hōrae mōmentō cita mors venit aut victōria laeta#, H. _S._ 1, 1, 7, _within an hour’s brief turn comes speedy death or victory glad_. #aut vīvam aut moriar#, T. _Ph._ 483, _I shall either live or die_. #sīderibus dubiīs aut illō tempore quō sē frīgida circumagunt pigrī serrāca Boōtae#, J. 5, 22, _when stars blink faint, or even at the time when round rolls slow Boötes’ frigid wain_. #quā rē vī aut clam agendum est#, _Att._ 10, 12, 5 [10, 12b, 2], _so we must use force, or at any rate secrecy_. Sometimes #aut# connects kindred ideas: as, #equī ictī aut vulnerātī cōnsternābantur#, L. 21, 33, 6, _the horses kept getting frantic from being hit or wounded_.

1669. #aut#, in the sense of _otherwise_, _or else_, sometimes introduces a statement of what necessarily follows, if something else is not done: as,

#audendum est aliquid ūniversīs, aut omnia singulīs patienda#, L. 6, 18, 7, _you must make some bold dash collectively, or else you must suffer every thing individually_. #vel# is also occasionally used in this sense.

1670. (2.) #vel#, _or_, introduces an alternative as a matter of choice or preference, and often relates merely to the selection of an expression: as,

#eius modī coniūnctiōnem tēctōrum oppidum vel urbem appellāvērunt#, _RP._ 1, 41, _such a collection of dwelling-houses they called, well, a town or a city, whichever you please_. #vel imperātōre vel mīlite mē ūtiminī#, S. _C._ 20, 16, _use me as your generalissimo or as a private, whichever you will_. #Catilīnam ex urbe vel ēiēcimus vel ēmīsimus vel ipsum ēgredientem verbīs prōsecūtī sumus#, _C._ 2, 1, _we have--what shall I say?--driven Catiline out of town, or allowed him to go out, or, when he was going out of his own accord, wished him a pleasant journey_. #vel# is often followed by #etiam#, #potius#, or #dīcam#. From Tacitus on, #vel# is sometimes used in the sense of #aut#: as, #vincendum vel cadendum esse#, Ta. 14, 35, _they must do or die_ (1668).

1671. #vel# is sometimes used in the sense of _if you will_, _even_, or _perhaps_, especially before superlatives, or in the sense of _for instance_: as,

#huius domus est vel optima Messānae, nōtissima quidem certē#, _V._ 4, 3, _this gentleman’s house is perhaps the finest in all Messana, at any rate the best known_. #amant tēd omnēs mulierēs, neque iniūriā: vel illae, quae here palliō mē reprehendērunt#, Pl. _MG._ 58, _the girls all idolize you, well they may; for instance those that buttonholed me yesterday_.

1672. (3.) #sīve# or #seu#, _or_, used as a disjunctive conjunction, denotes a distinction which is not essential, or the speaker’s uncertainty as to some matter of detail; when used once only, it is chiefly in corrections, often with #potius#, _rather_, added; as,

#is Ascanius urbem mātrī seu novercae relīquit#, L. 1, 3, 3, _said Ascanius left the city to his mother, or his stepmother, if you prefer_. #dīxit Pompēius, sīve voluit#, _QFr._ 2, 3, 2, _Pompey made a speech, or rather attempted to make one_.

1673. #sīve# is often repeated in the sense of _either_, or _no matter whether . . . or_: as,

#ita sīve cāsū sīve cōnsiliō deōrum, quae pars calamitātem populō Rōmānō intulerat, ea prīnceps poenās persolvit#, 1, 12, 6, _thus, no matter whether from chance or through special providence, the part which had done damage to Rome was the first to pay penalty in full_.

1674. (4.) #-ve# rarely connects main sentences, usually only the less important parts of the sentence, or, oftener still, subordinate sentences: as,

#cūr timeam dubitemve locum dēfendere?# J. 1, 103, _why should I fear or hesitate to stand my ground?_ #Appius ad mē bis terve litterās mīserat#, _Att._ 6, 1, 2, _Appius had written me two or three times_. With #nē# it forms #nēve# or #neu#, which is used as a continuation of #nē# or #ut#: see 1581; 1586; 1947.

1675. (5.) The interrogative particle #an# sometimes becomes a disjunctive conjunction, _or_, _or possibly_, _or perhaps_: as, #Simōnidēs an quis alius#, _Fin._ 2, 104, _Simonides or possibly somebody else_. Common in Cicero, though not so in his speeches, and in Livy, commonest in Tacitus.

[Erratum: 1667 ... #aut#, #vel#, and #sīve# are often #sīve#. are]

(_c._) ADVERSATIVE CONJUNCTIONS.

1676. Adversative conjunctions connect the sentences, but contrast the meaning. They are #autem#, _on the other hand_, #sed#, #vērum#, #cēterum#, _but_, #vērō#, _but_, _indeed_, #at#, _but_, #tamen#, #nihilō minus#, _nevertheless_.

Of these conjunctions, #autem# and #vērō# are put after one word, or sometimes after two closely connected words; #tamen# is put either at the beginning, or after an emphatic word.

1677. (1.) #autem#, _again_, _on the other hand_, _however_, simply continues the discourse by a statement appended to the preceding, without setting it aside: as,

#hōrum prīncipibus pecūniās, cīvitātī autem imperium tōtīus prōvinciae pollicētur#, 7, 64, 8, _to the chieftains of this nation on the one hand he promises moneys, and to the community on the other hand the hegemony of the whole province_. The opposition in a sentence introduced by #autem#, _again_, is often so weak that a copulative, _and_, might be used: as, #ille quī Dī̆ogenem adulēscēns, post autem Panaetium audierat#, _Fin._ 2, 24, _the man who in his early youth had sat at the feet of Diogenes, and afterwards of Panaetius_. #autem# is oftenest used in philosophical or didactic discourse, less frequently in history, oratory, or poetry.

1678. #autem# is often used in questions: as, #metuō crēdere :: crēdere autem?# Pl. _Ps._ 304, _I am afraid to trust :: trust, do you say?_

1679. (2.) #sed# or #set#, and #vērum#, _but_, are used either in restriction, or, after a negative, in direct opposition: as,

#vēra dīcō, sed nēquīquam, quoniam nōn vīs crēdere#, Pl. _Am._ 835, _I tell the truth, but all in vain, since you are bent not to believe_. #nōn ego erus tibī, sed servos sum#, Pl. _Cap._ 241, _I am not your master, but your slave_.

1680. #nōn modo#, or #nōn sōlum#, _not only_, _not alone_, is followed by #sed etiam# or #vērum etiam#, _but also_, by #sed . . . quoque#, _but ... as well_, or sometimes by #sed# or #vērum# alone: as,

#quī nōn sōlum interfuit hīs rēbus, sed etiam praefuit#, _Fam._ 1, 8, 1, _who has not had a hand only in these matters, but complete charge_. #quī omnibus negōtiīs nōn interfuit sōlum, sed praefuit#, _Fam._ 1, 6, 1. #nōn tantum# is sometimes used by Livy, and once or twice by Cicero, but not by Caesar or Sallust, for #nōn modo#. Livy and Tacitus sometimes omit #sed# or #vērum#.

1681. #nōn modo# has sometimes the meaning of #nōn dīcam#: as, #nōn modo ad certam mortem, sed in magnum vītae discrīmen#, _Sest._ 45, _I won’t say to certain death, but to great risk of life_.

1682. #nōn modo# or #nōn sōlum#, when attended by another negative, may also be followed by #sed nē . . . quidem#, _but not even_, or #sed vix#, _but hardly_: as,

#nōn modo tibī̆ nōn īrāscor, sed nē reprehendō quidem factum tuum#, _Sull._ 50, _so far from being angry with you I do not even criticise your action_. When both members have the same predicate, usually placed last, the negation in #nē . . . quidem# or #vix# usually applies to the first member also: as, #tālis vir nōn modo facere, sed nē cōgitāre quidem quicquam audēbit, quod nōn audeat praedicāre#, _Off._ 3, 77, _a man of this kind will not only not venture to do, but not even to conceive anything which he would not venture to trumpet to the world_, or _will not venture to conceive, much less do_.

1683. (3.) #cēterum# is sometimes used in the sense of #sed#, in Terence, Sallust, and Livy. Sometimes also in the sense of #sed rē vērā#, in Sallust and Tacitus, to contrast reality with pretence.

1684. (4.) #vērō#, _but_, _indeed_, introduces an emphatic contrast or a climax: as,

#sed sunt haec leviōra, illa vērō gravia atque magna#, _Pl._ 86, _however, all this is less important, but the following is weighty and great_. #scīmus mūsicēn nostrīs mōribus abesse ā prīncipis persōnā, saltāre vērō etiam in vitiīs pōnī#, N. 15, 1, 2, _we know that, according to our Roman code of ethics, music is not in keeping with the character of an eminent man, and as to dancing, why that is classed among vices_. In Plautus, #vērō# is only used as an adverb; its use as an adversative conjunction begins with Terence. In the historians, #vērō# is often equivalent to #autem#.

1685. (5.) #at#, _but_, denotes emphatic lively opposition, an objection, or a contrast: as,