Part 26

The perfect system of the simple verb is rare: #sorbuit#, #sorbuerint# (Plin.); also (823) #sorpsit# (Val. Max.); #ab-sorbeō# and #ex-sorbeō# have #-sorbuī#; but #ab-sorpsī# (Plin., Luc., Macr.), #ex-sorpsī# (Sen.).

studeō, _am eager_ studēre studuī ---- stupeō, _am dazed_ stupēre stupuī ---- timeō, _fear_ timēre timuī ---- valeō, _am strong_ valēre valuī ---- vigeō, _feel strong_ vigēre viguī ----

1007. For #audeō#, #gaudeō#, and #soleō#, see 801; for #lubet# or #libet#, #licet#, #miseret#, #oportet#, #paenitet#, #piget#, #pudet#, #taedet#, see 815 and 816.

[Errata: 1004 ... but in Plautus once #de-hibuistī# printed as shown: expected form #dē-hibuistī# 1006 ... but #ab-sorpsī# (Plin., Luc., Macr.) macron invisible]

DEPONENTS IN #-ērī#.

1008. (1_a_.) The following deponent in #-ērī# has the perfect participle in #-tus#:

reor, _reckon_, _think_ rērī ratus

1009. (1_b_.) The following deponents in #-ērī# have the perfect participle in #-tus#, which is preceded by a short #i# (910):

liceor, _bid_ licērī licitus misereor, _pity_ miserērī miseritus

Perfect participle also #misertus# (Val. Max., Sen., Curt.). Active forms are: #miserēte#, #miserērent# (Enn.), #misereās# (Ter.), #miseret# (Lucr.), #miserent# (Val. Fl.). Passive forms are sometimes used impersonally (724): as, #miserētur#, &c.

tueor, _look to_, _protect_ tuērī tuitus late

Forms in #-ī# also occur in verse (821). As perfect participle, generally #tūtātus#.

vereor, _am awed at_ verērī veritus

1010. (2.) One deponent in #-ērī# has the perfect participle in #-sus# (912):

fateor, _confess_ fatērī fassus

Compounds have #i# and #e# for #a#: as, #cōn-fiteor#, #cōn-fessus#.

(3.) VERBS IN #-īre#.

(A.) PERFECT STEM WITHOUT A SUFFIX.

1011. (1_a_.) The following verb in #-īre# has a reduplicated perfect stem (861), and the perfect participle in #-tus#:

re-periō, _find_ re-perīre re-pperī re-pertus

1012. (1_b_.) The following verb in #-īre# has no reduplication in the perfect stem, and the perfect participle in #-tus#:

com-periō, _find out_ com-perīre com-perī com-pertus

As deponent: #com-periar# (Ter.), #com-perior# (Sall., Tac.).

1013. (2.) The following verb in #-īre# has a perfect stem consisting of a consonant root with a long vowel (862), and the perfect participle in #-tus#:

veniō, _come_ venīre vēnī ventum, -ventus

For #ē-venunt#, #ē-venat#, #ē-venant#, #ad-venat#, #per-venat#, see 822.

(B.) PERFECT STEM IN #-s-#, OR IN #-v-# OR #-u-#.

PERFECT STEM IN #-s-#.

1014. (1.) The following verbs in #-īre# have the perfect stem in #-s-# (868), and the perfect participle in #-tus#:

farciō, _stuff_ farcīre farsī fartus

Compounds have usually #e# for #a# throughout.

fulciō, _prop_ fulcīre fulsī fultus hauriō, _drain_ haurīre hausī haustus

A perfect subjunctive #haurierint# is quoted from Varro (823).

saepiō, _hedge in_ saepīre saepsī saeptus sanciō, _hallow_ sancīre sānxī sānctus adjective

Perfect participle rarely #sancītus# (Lucr., Liv.). A pluperfect #sancierat# is quoted from Pomponius Secundus (823).

sarciō, _patch_ sarcīre sarsī sartus vinciō, _bind_ vincīre vīnxī vīnctus

1015. (2.) The following verb in #-īre# has the perfect stem in #-s-# (868), and the perfect participle in #-sus# (912):

sentiō, _feel_ sentīre sēnsī sēnsus

The compound with #ad# is generally deponent (800).

PERFECT STEM IN #-v-#.

1016. (1_a_.) The following verb in #-īre# has the perfect stem in #-v-# (869), and the perfect participle in #-tus#, both preceded by a long #ī# of the root:

sciō, _know_ scīre scīvī scītus

1017. (1_b_.) The following verb in #-īre# has the perfect stem in #-v-# (869), and the perfect participle in #-tus#:

sepeliō, _bury_ sepelīre sepelīvī sepultus

1018. (1_c_.) Most verbs in #-īre# have the perfect stem in #-v-# (869), and the perfect participle in #-tus#, both preceded by a form of the present stem in long #-ī-#: as,

audiō, _hear_ audīre audīvī audītus

PERFECT STEM IN #-u-#.

1019. (2.) The following verbs in #-īre# have the perfect stem in #-u-# (874), and the perfect participle, when used, in #-tus#:

am-iciō, _don_ am-icīre am-icuī am-ictus

Perfect rare: once #am-icuī# (Brut.), once #am-ixī# (Varr.).

ap-eriō, _open_ ap-erīre ap-eruī ap-ertus op-eriō, _cover over_ op-erīre op-eruī op-ertus saliō, _leap_ salīre saluī ----

Compounds have #i# for #a# throughout: as, #īn-siliō#. A perfect system in #-v-# (823, 893), as #ex-silīvī#, occurs in late writers (Col., Sen., Plin., &c.).

DEPONENTS IN #-īrī#.

1020. (1_a_.) The following deponents in #-īrī# have the perfect participle in #-tus#:

ex-perior, _try_ ex-perīrī ex-pertus op-perior, _wait for_ op-perīrī op-pertus

Perfect participle once #op-perītus# (Plaut.).

1021. (1_b_.) The following deponents in #-īrī# have the perfect participle in #-ītus#:

blandior, _am agreeable_ blandīrī blandītus largior, _shower_ largīrī largītus mentior, _tell lies_ mentīrī mentītus mōlior, _work hard_ mōlīrī mōlītus partior, _share_ partīrī partītus sortior, _draw lots_ sortīrī sortītus

1022. (2.) The following deponents in #-īrī# have the perfect participle in #-sus# (912):

mētior, _measure_ mētīrī mēnsus ōrdior, _begin_ ōrdīrī ōrsus

PART SECOND [decoration] SENTENCES

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE AND ITS PARTS.

1023. A SENTENCE is a thought expressed by means of a verb. The SUBJECT is that which is spoken of. The PREDICATE is that which is said of the subject.

1024. A SIMPLE SENTENCE is one which has only one subject and one predicate.

Thus, #Rhodanus fluit#, _the Rhone flows_, is a simple sentence: the subject is #Rhodanus# and the predicate is #fluit#.

1025. The sentence may be _declarative_, stating a fact, _exclamatory_, crying out about something, _interrogative_, asking a question, or _imperative_, giving a command.

THE SUBJECT.

1026. The subject is a substantive, or any word or words having the value of a substantive.

1027. The subject of a verb is in the nominative case.

1028. The subject may be expressed, or may be merely indicated by the person ending.

1029. (1.) With the first or the second person, the subject is expressed by a personal pronoun (#ego# #tū#, #nōs# #vōs#) only when somewhat emphatic, or in an indignant question. Otherwise the verb of the first or second person is not attended by a personal pronoun: as, #eram#, _I was_, #erās#, _thou wert_.

1030. The subject is regularly omitted when it is general and indefinite, in the first person plural; as, #intellegimus#, _we understand_; and second person singular, as: #putārēs#, _you_, or _anybody would have thought_.

1031. The subject of the first or second person is sometimes a substantive, contrary to the English idiom: as, #Hannibal petō pācem#, _I Hannibal am suing for peace_. #pars spectātōrum scīs#, _a part of you spectators knows_. #exoriāre aliquis nostrīs ex ossibus ultor#, _from out our bones mayst some avenger spring_. #trecentī coniūrāvimus#, _three hundred of us have sworn an oath together_.

1032. (2.) With the third person the subject is regularly expressed, unless the general ‘he she it,’ or ‘they’ implied in the person ending is definite enough.

1033. The third person plural often refers to people in general, particularly of verbs meaning _say_, _name_ or _call_, _think_, and, with #volgō# added, of other verbs also: as, #ferunt#, _they say_, _people say_, or _the world says_. The singular verb #inquit#, is rarely used in the sense of _says somebody_, _it will be said_, or _quotha_.

1034. Some verbs have no subject at all in the third person singular; these are called _Impersonal_. Such are: a few verbs expressing ‘operations of nature,’ five verbs of ‘mental distress,’ and any verb used to denote merely the occurrence of action, without reference to any doer: as,

(_a._) #lūcet#, _it is light_, #lūcēscit#, _it is getting light_; #pluit#, _it rains_, #fulget#, _it lightens_, #tonat#, _it thunders_. (_b._) #miseret#, _it moves to pity_, #paenitet#, _it repents_, #piget#, _it grieves_, #pudet#, _it puts to shame_, #taedet#, _it bores_. (_c._) #bene erat#, _it went well_; #pugnātur#, _there is fighting_, #pugnātum est#, _there was fighting_. See also 816.

THE PREDICATE.

1035. The predicate is either a verb alone, or a verb of indeterminate meaning with a predicate nominative added to complete the sense.

Verbs of indeterminate meaning are such as mean _am_ (something), _become_, _remain_, _seem_, _am thought_, _am called_ or _named_, _am chosen_.

1036. The verb is sometimes omitted, when it is easily understood. So particularly such everyday verbs as mean _am_, _do_, _say_, _come_, and _go_, in proverbs and maxims, in short questions, and in emphatic or lively assertion or description: as,

#quot hominēs, tot sententiae#, sc. #sunt#, _as many men, so many minds_. #omnia praeclāra rāra#, sc. #sunt#, _all that’s very fair is rare_. #mortuus Cūmīs#, sc. #est#, _he died at Cumae_. #bene mihī̆#, sc. #sit#, _be it well with me_, i.e. _a health to me_. #haec hāctenus#, sc. #dīcam#, _thus much only_, or _no more of this_.

ENLARGEMENT OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.

1037. The parts of the simple sentence may be enlarged by additions. The commonest enlargements of the subject and of the predicate are the following.

1038. I. The subject may be enlarged by the addition of attributes, appositives, or objects.

1039. (1.) An ATTRIBUTE is an essential addition to a substantive, uniting with it as one idea. The attribute may be:

1040. (_a._) Genitive of a substantive of different meaning, denoting the agent, possessor, or the like: as, #metus hostium#, _fear of the enemy_, i.e. which they feel. #hostium castra#, _camp of the enemy_.

1041. (_b._) Genitive or ablative of a substantive with an adjective in agreement: as, #puer sēdecim annōrum#, _a boy of sixteen years_; #bovēs mīrā speciē#, _kine of wondrous beauty_.

1042. (_c._) A noun in the same case, either an adjective or participle, or else a substantive used adjectively: as, #pugna Cannēnsis#, _the battle of Cannae_; #cīvitātēs victae#, _the conquered communities_; #victor Rōmulus rēx#, _victorious king Romulus_.

1043. (_d._) A substantive in the accusative or ablative with a preposition: as, #pugna ad Cannās#, _the battle near Cannae_. #vir sine metū#, _a man without fear_ (1427).

1044. An attribute is rarely attached immediately to a proper name: as, #fortem Gyān#, _Gyas the brave_. #Q. Lūcānius, eiusdem ōrdinis#, _Lucanius, of the same rank_. It is much oftener attached to a general word in apposition with the proper name: as, #vir clārissimus, M. Crassus#, _the illustrious Crassus_.

1045. (2.) An APPOSITIVE is a separate substantive added as an explanation to another substantive, and in the same case, but not like the attribute uniting with it as one idea: as,

#avītum malum, rēgnī cupīdō#, _the ancestral curse, ambition for a crown_. #Hamilcar, Mārs alter#, _Hamilcar, a second Mars_. #Cornēlia, māter Gracchōrum#, _Cornelia, mother of the Gracchi_. #Teutomatus, Ollivicōnis fīlius, rēx Nitiobrogum#, _Teutomatus, the son of Ollivico, the king of the Nitiobroges_.

1046. (3.) The OBJECT of a substantive is another substantive of different meaning in the genitive, denoting that on which action is exerted: as,

#metus hostium#, _fear of the enemy_, i.e. which is felt towards them. #vēnditiō bonōrum#, _sale of the goods_.

1047. A substantive in any case may be modified like the subject.

1048. II. The predicate may be enlarged by the addition of accusatives, datives, predicate nouns, or adverbial adjuncts.

1049. (1.) The ACCUSATIVE denotes the object of the verb; also extent, duration, and aim of motion. See 1124.

1050. (2.) The DATIVE denotes that for or to which something is or is done. See 1175.

1051. (3.) A predicate noun, either substantive or adjective, denoting ‘office, time, age, order, condition,’ or the like, is often added to other verbs besides those of indeterminate meaning (1035): as,

#Iūnius aedem dictātor dēdicāvit#, _Junius dedicated a temple in his capacity as dictator_, not _Junius the dictator_. #litterās Graecās senex didicī#, _I learned Greek when I was an old man_. #prīnceps in proelium ībat, ultimus excēdēbat#, _he was always the first to go into battle, the last to come out_. For the predicative dative of the substantive, see 1219.

1052. In like manner a noun may be added as a predicate in agreement with a substantive in any oblique case: as,

#sē incolumēs recipiunt#, _they come back safe_. #ante mē cōnsulem#, _before my consulship_. #Dolābellā hoste dēcrētō#, _Dolabella having been voted an enemy_. #nātūrā duce#, _with nature as a guide_.

1053. (4.) An ADVERBIAL ADJUNCT is either an oblique case of a noun, often with a preposition, or an adverb denoting ‘place, time, extent, degree, manner, cause,’ or ‘circumstances’ generally: as,

#silentiō proficīscitur#, _he marches in silence_. #in eō flūmine pōns erat#, _over that river there was a bridge_.

1054. A predicate substantive may be modified like the subject. An adjective either of the subject or of the predicate, may be modified by an oblique case or by an adverb.

[Erratum: 1040a ... #hostium castra#, _camp of the enemy_. . missing]

COMBINATION OF SENTENCES.

1055. Simple sentences may be combined in two different ways. The added sentence may be I. Coordinate; or II. Subordinate.

Thus, in _he died and we lived_, the two sentences are coordinate, that is, of equal rank. But in _he died that we might live_, the sentence beginning with _that_ is subordinate. In either combination the separate sentences are often called _Clauses_ or _Members_, in contradistinction to the more comprehensive sentence of which they are parts.

I. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE.

1056. A COMPOUND SENTENCE is one which consists of two or more coordinate simple sentences: as,

#tū mē amās, ego tē amō#, Pl. _Most._ 305, _thou art in love with me, I’m in love with thee_. #nox erat et caelō fulgēbat lūna serēnō inter minōra sīdera#, H. _Epod._ 15, 1, _’twas night, and in a cloudless sky, bright rode the moon amid the lesser lights_. #ā tē petō, mē dēfendās#, _Fam._ 15, 8, _I ask it of you, protect me_.

1057. A compound sentence is usually abridged when the members have parts in common: as,

#valēbant precēs et lacrimae#, _Mil._ 34, _prayers and tears had weight_, compound subject, for #valēbant precēs et valēbant lacrimae#. #rogat ōratque tē#, _RA._ 144, _he begs and entreats you_, compound predicate, for #rogat tē ōratque tē#. #arma virumque canō#, V. 1, 1, _arms and the man I sing_, compound object, for #arma canō virumque canō#. #diū atque ācriter pugnātum est#, 1, 26, 1, _there was long and sharp fighting_, for #diū pugnātum est atque ācriter pugnātum est#.

[Errata: 1057 ... _he begs and entreats you_, . for , #arma virumque canō#, V. 1, 1 V 1, 1]

II. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE.

1058. A COMPLEX SENTENCE is one which consists of a main and a subordinate sentence: as,

#centuriōnēs praemittit# (main sentence), #quī locum idōneum castrīs dēligant# (subordinate sentence), 2, 17, 1, _he sends some officers ahead to select a suitable spot for the camp_, #nunc scio# (main sentence), #quid sit Amor# (subordinate sentence), V. _E._ 8, 43, _now, now I know what Eros is_. #ā tē petō# (main sentence), _ut mē dēfendās_ (subordinate sentence), _Fam._ 15, 7, _I ask it of you that you protect me_.

1059. Several sentences are often subordinate to one and the same main sentence, and subordinate sentences may in their turn be main sentences to other subordinate sentences.

Thus, in the following sentence _b_ is subordinate to _A_, and _c_ to _Ab_: (_c._) #quālis esset nātūra montis#, (_b._) #quī cōgnōscerent#, (_A._) #mīsit#, 1, 21, 1, _he sent some people to see what the character of the hill was_.

1060. Subordinate sentences may be coordinated with each other, as well as main sentences.

Thus, in the following sentence, _b_ and _b_ are both subordinate to _A_, but coordinate with each other: (_A._) #hīs rēbus fiēbat#, (_b._) #ut et minus lātē vagārentur# (_b._) #et minus facile fīnitimīs bellum īnferre possent#, 1, 2, 4, _so it came to pass that, in the first place, they did not roam round much, and secondly, they could not so easily make aggressive war on their neighbours_.

1061. A subordinate sentence introductory in thought to the main sentence, though not necessarily first in the order of the words, is called a _Protasis_; the main sentence which completes the thought is called an _Apodosis_: as,

#quom vidēbis# (protasis), #tum sciēs# (apodosis), Pl. #B.# 145, _when thou see’st, then thou’lt know_. #ut sēmentem fēceris# (protasis), #ita metēs# (apodosis), _DO._ 2, 261, _as a man soweth, so shall he reap_. #sī sunt dī# (protasis), #beneficī in hominēs sunt# (apodosis), _Div._ 2, 104, _if there are gods, they are kind to men_.

AGREEMENT.

(A.) OF THE VERB.

1062. A verb agrees with its subject in number and person: as,

#praedia mea tū possidēs, ego aliēnā misericordiā vīvō#, _RA._ 145, _you, sir, hold my estates, it is by the compassion of other people that I am supported_. #Rhodanus fluit#, 1, 6, 2, _the Rhone flows_. #nōs, nōs, dīcō apertē, cōnsulēs dēsumus#, _C._ 1, 3, _it is ourselves, yes, ourselves, I will speak without reserve, the consuls, who fail in our duty_. #vōs vōbīs cōnsulite#, 7, 50, 4, _do you look out for yourselves_. #diffūgēre nivēs#, H. 4, 7, 1, _scattered and gone are snows_.

1063. With a compound subject, two constructions are admissible, as follows.

1064. (1.) With two or more singular subjects, the verb is often in the plural: as,

(_a._) Without connectives: persons: #iīsdem ferē temporibus fuērunt C. Cotta, P. Sulpicius, Q. Varius, Cn. Pompōnius#, _Br._ 182, _in about the same times lived Cotta, Sulpicius, Varius, and Pomponius_. Things: #fidēs Rōmāna, iūstitia imperātōris in forō et cūriā celebrantur#, L. 5, 27, 11, _the chivalrous principle of Rome and the square dealing of her captain are trumpeted in market place and council hall_. (_b._) With #atque#, #et#, or #-que#: persons: #ex hīs Cotta et Sulpicius facile prīmās tulērunt#, _Br._ 182, _of these Cotta and Sulpicius indisputably bore the palm_. Things: #nox et amor vīnumque nihil moderābile suādent#, O. _Am._ 1, 6, 59, _darkness and love and wine to nothing governable tempt_. #cum senātus populusque Rōmānus pācem comprobāverint#, L. 37, 45, 14, _when the senate and the people of Rome sanction peace_. (_c._) With #et . . . et#: persons: #et Q. Maximus et L. Paullus iīs temporibus fuērunt#, _Fam._ 4, 6, 1, _both Maximus and Paullus lived in such times_. Things: #utrōsque et laudis cupiditās et timor īgnōminiae excitābant#, 7, 80, 5, _both of these eagerness for glory in the first place and secondly fear of disgrace spurred on_.

1065. The plural is sometimes demanded by the meaning of the verb: as, #iūs et iniūria nātūrā dīiūdicantur#, _Leg._ 1, 44, _right and wrong are naturally distinguished from each other_.

1066. (2.) Often, however, with two or more singular subjects, the verb is put in the singular: as,

(_a._) Without connectives: persons: #tum Gorgiās, Thrasymachus, Prodicus, Hippiās in magnō honōre fuit#, _Br._ 30, _at that time Gorgias, Thrasymachus, Prodicus, and Hippias were in high renown_. Things: #persuāsit nox, amor, vīnum, adulēscentia#, T. _Ad._ 470, _the witchery was night, flirtation, wine, and youth_. (_b._) With #atque#, #et#, or #-que#: persons: #cūr Lȳsiās et Hyperīdēs amātur?# _Br._ 68, _why is a Lysias and a Hyperides idolized?_ Things: #Gallōs ā Belgīs Matrona et Sēquana dīvidit#, 1, 2, 1, _the Matrona and Sequana cut off the Gauls from the Belgians_. #senātus populusque Rōmānus voluit#, L. 21, 40, 3, _senate and people of Rome ordained_. (_c._) With #et . . . et#: persons: #illam ratiōnem et Pompēius et Flaccus secūtus est#, _Flacc._ 32, _that rule both Pompey and Flaccus followed_. Things: #tālis senātōrum et dignitās et multitūdō fuit#, _Ph._ 13, 13, _both the position and number of the senators was such_.

1067. With two or more singular subjects denoting things, and making a compound idea, a singular verb is very common, agreeing either with the subjects taken as a unit, or with the nearest: as,

(_a._) #cum tempus necessitāsque postulat, dēcertandum manū est#, _Off._ 1, 81, _when the emergency requires, we must fight it out by hand_. #tanta laetitia ac grātulātiō fuit#, L. 10, 26, 4, _so great was the demonstration of joy_. (_b._) #Cingetorīgī prīncipātus atque imperium est trāditum#, 6, 8, 9, _the headship and command was assigned to Cingetorix_.

1068. (3.) With mixed subjects, singular and plural, the verb may likewise be either plural or singular: as,

(_a._) #vīta mors, dīvitiae paupertās omnīs hominēs permovent#, _Off._ 2, 37, _life and death, riches and poverty, tell much on everybody_. (_b._) #quantō in perīculō et castra et legiōnēs et imperātor versārētur#, 2, 26, 5, _in what imminent peril camp and legions and commander were involved_. #hōc mihī̆ et Peripatēticī et Acadēmīa concēdit#, _Ac._ 2, 113, _this point both Peripatetics and Academy grant me_.

1069. The plural is sometimes used with a singular subject limited by an ablative with #cum#, _with_: as, #Syrus cum illō vostrō cōnsusurrant#, T. _Hau._ 473, _Syrus and yon man of yours are whispering together_. #Bocchus cum peditibus postrēmam Rōmānōrum aciem invādunt#, S. _I._ 101, 5, _Bocchus with the infantry falls on the rereward line of the Romans_. Cicero commonly uses a singular verb in this combination, Caesar has the plural once only.

1070. (4.) When the subjects are connected by #nec . . . nec#, #aut#, or #aut . . . aut#, the verb is likewise either plural or singular: as,

(_a._) #neque multitūdō hostium neque tēlōrum vīs arcēre impetum eius virī potuērunt#, L. 26, 5, 17, _neither the numbers of the enemy nor the shower of missiles could arrest the onslaught of that intrepid soul_. #sī quid Sōcratēs aut Aristippus fēcerint#, _Off._ 1, 148, _if a Socrates or an Aristippus had done anything_. (_b._) #neque pēs neque mēns satis suom officium facit#, T. _Eu._ 729, _nor foot nor mind its duty doth aright_. #sī Sōcratēs aut Antisthenēs dīceret#, _TD._ 5, 26, _if a Socrates or an Antisthenes should say it_.

1071. Collectives have usually a singular verb. But the plural is sometimes used, especially when the subject is separated from its verb, or is to be supplied from a preceding clause: as,

#cum tanta multitūdō lapidēs conicerent#, 2, 6, 3, _when such a throng were throwing stones_. #is cīvitātī persuāsit, ut dē fīnibus suīs exīrent#, 1, 2, 1, _this person succeeded in inducing the community to leave their territory_.

1072. The verb sometimes agrees with an appositive explaining the subject, or with a substantive in the predicate: as,