Part 23

856. The first person of the perfect ends in #-ī#, sometimes written #ei# (29, 2). #-t#, #-stī#, sometimes written #-stei# (29, 2), #-stis#, and #-mus# are preceded by short #i#; #-re# is always, and #-runt# is usually, preceded by long #ē#: as,

#rēxī#, #rēxi-stī#, #rēxi-t#, #rēxi-mus#, #rēxi-stis#, #rēxē-runt# (#rēxe-runt#), or #rēxē-re#.

857. Sometimes #-t# is preceded by long #ī#: as, #iīt#, #petiīt#, REDIEIT (29, 2). #-runt# is sometimes preceded by short #e# (Plaut., Ter., Lucr., Hor., Ov., Verg., Phaedr.). This is the original form; #-ē-# is by analogy to #-ēre#.

(A.) PERFECT STEM WITHOUT A SUFFIX.

858. (1.) Some verbs in #-ere# form their perfect stem by prefixing to the root its initial consonant with the following vowel, which, if #a#, is usually represented by #e#; this is called the _Reduplicated Perfect_, and the first syllable is called the _Reduplication_: as,

PERFECT STEM. VERB. FROM THEME. pu-pug- pungō, _punch_ +pug-+ pe-pig- pangō, _fix_ +pag-+

Other examples are: #cadō#, _fall_, #cecidī# (#cad-#, 104, _c_); #pariō#, _bring forth_, #peperī# (#par-#, 104, _c_); #pellō#, _push_, #pepulī# (#pol-#, 105, _h_); #poscō#, _demand_, #poposcī# (855); #fallō#, _deceive_, #fefellī# (855, 104, _c_); see also 923-932. #caedō#, _cut_, has #cecīdī# (108, _a_); and a few old forms are quoted from verbs having an #o# or an #u# in the root with #e# in the reduplication: as, #memordī#, #pepugī#.

859. Four verbs with vowel roots also have a reduplicated perfect stem: #dō#, _give_, _put_, #dare#, #dedī#; #bibō#, _drink_, #bibere#, #bibī#; #stō#, _stand_, #stāre#, #stetī#, and #sistō#, _set_, #sistere#, #-stitī#, rarely #stitī#. Also four verbs in #-ēre#: #mordeō#, _bite_, #momordī#, #pendeō#, _hang_, #pependī#, #spondeō#, _promise_, #spopondī#, #tondeō#, _clip_, #-totondī#. In the root syllable of #spopondī#, _promised_, #stetī#, _stood_, #stitī#, _set_, and the old #scicidī#, _clove_, an #s# is dropped (173, 2).

860. In compounds the reduplication is commonly dropped: as,

#cecidī#, _fell_, compound #concidī#, _tumbled down_. Compounds of #cucurrī#, _ran_, sometimes retain the reduplication: as, #prōcucurrī#. Compounds of #bibī#, _drank_, #didicī#, _learned_, #poposcī#, _asked_, #stitī#, _set_, #stetī#, _stood_, and #dedī#, _gave_, _put_, retain it, the last two weakening #e# to #i#: as, #restitī#, _staid back_. #abscondidī#, _hid away_, usually becomes #abscondī#; in apparent compounds, #e# is usually retained: as, #circum stetī#, _stood round_, #vēnum dedī#, _put for sale_. The reduplication is also lost in the simple verbs #tulī#, _carried_, old #tetulī#, and in #scindō#, _split_, #scidī#, which last is rare as a simple verb.

861. Some compounds with #re-# drop only the vowel of the reduplication (111, _a_): as, #reccidī#, _fell back_; #rettulī#, _brought back_ (see also 781); #repperī#, _found_; #rettudī#, _beat back_. Some perfects occur only in composition: as, PERCELLŌ, _knock down_, #perculī#; #cōntundō#, _smash to pieces_, #contudī#; #diffindō#, _split apart_, #diffidī#; but #fidī# also occurs a couple of times as a simple verb.

862. (2.) Some verbs in #-ere# have a perfect stem consisting of a consonant root with a long vowel (135, 1): as,

PERFECT STEM. VERB. FROM THEME. ēd- edō, _eat_ +ed-+ lēg- legō, _pick up_, _read_ +leg-+

Other examples are: #fodiō#, _dig_, #fōdī#; #fundō#, _pour_, #fūdī#; #linquō#, _leave_, #līquī#; see 936-946. Three verbs in #-ēre# also have this form, #sedeō#, _sit_, #sēdī#, #strīdeō#, _grate_, #strīdī#, #videō#, _see_, #vīdī#; and one in #-īre#, #veniō#, _come_, #vēnī#.

863. The following verbs in #-ere# with #a# in the present stem, have long #ē# in the perfect stem (145):

#agō#, _do_, #ēgī#, #frangō#, _break_, #frēgī#, #pangō#, _fix_, rarely #pēgī#, but always #compēgī#, #impēgī#, #oppēgī#; #capiō#, _take_, #cēpī#, #faciō#, _make_, #fēcī#, #iaciō#, _throw_, #iēcī#. So also the old #co-ēpī#, _began_, common #coepī#.

864. Two verbs in #-āre# and some in #-ēre# have a perfect stem consisting of a root which ends in #-v-# and has a long vowel: #iuvō#, _help_, #iuvāre#, #iūvī#, #lavō#, _wash_, #lavāre# or #lavere#, #lāvī#; #caveō#, _look out_, #cavēre#, #cāvī#; see 996.

865. Verbs in #-uō#, #-uere#, both primitives and denominatives, have usually a perfect stem in short #u# of the theme (124): as, #luō#, _pay_, #luī#; #acuō#, _sharpen_, #acuī#: see 947, 948. Forms with long #ū# are old and rare (126): as, #fūī#, #adnūī#, #cōnstitūī#, #īnstitūī#. #fluō#, _flow_, and #struō#, _pile_, have #flūxī# and #strūxi# (830).

866. (3.) Some verbs in #-ere# from roots ending in two consonants have a perfect stem consisting of the root: as,

PERFECT STEM. VERB. FROM THEME. mand- mandō, _chew_ +mand-+ pand- pandō, _open_ +pand-+

Other examples are: #vortō# or #vertō#, _turn_, #vortī# or #vertī#; #scandō#, _climb_, #-scendī#; #prehendō#, _seize_, #prehendī# (855); #vollō# or #vellō#, _pluck_, #vollī# or #vellī#; see 949-951. Similarly #ferveō#, _boil_, #fervere# or #fervēre#, has #fervī# or #ferbuī# (823), and #prandeō#, _lunch_, #prandēre#, has #prandī#.

(B.) PERFECT STEM IN #-s-#, OR IN #-v-# OR #-u-#.

PERFECT STEM IN #-s-#.

867. Many verbs in #-ere# form their perfect stem by adding the suffix #-s-# to a root, which generally ends in a mute: as,

PERFECT STEM. VERB. FROM THEME. carp-s- carpō, _pluck_ +carp-+ scalp-s- scalpō, _dig_ +scalp-+ ges-s- gerō, _bear_ +ges-+ dīx- dīcō, _say_ +dīc-+

Other examples are: #dūcō#, _lead_, #dūxī# (100); #fingō#, _mould_, #fīnxī# (855); #lūdō#, _play_, #lūsī# (166, 2); #scrībō#, _write_, #scrīpsī# (164, 1); #struō#, _pile_, #strūxī# (164, 1); #vīvō#, _live_, #vīxī# (98). Some verbs with a short vowel in the present, have a long vowel in the perfect: as, #regō#, _guide_, #rēxī# (135); #intellegō#, _understand_, #intellēxī# (823); #tegō#, _cover_, #tēxī#; #iungō#, _join_, #iūnxī# (855). And some verbs with a long vowel in the present, have a short vowel in the perfect: as, #ūrō#, _burn_, #ussī# (830). See 952-961.

868. Some verbs in #-ēre# also have a perfect in #-s-#: as #algeō#, _am cold_, #alsī# (170, 3); #haereō#, _stick_, #haesī# (166, 2): see 999, 1000. Also some in #-īre#: as, #sarciō#, _patch_, #sarsī# (170, 3): see 1014, 1015.

[Errata: 867 ... scalp-s- final - missing #scrībō#, _write_ #scrībō# _write_]

PERFECT STEM IN #-v-# OR #-u-#.

869. (1.) Some verbs in #-ere#, with vowel roots, and almost all verbs in #-āre# or #-īre#, form their perfect stem by adding the suffix #-v-# to a theme ending in a long vowel: as,

PERFECT STEM. VERB. FROM THEME. crē-v- crēscō, _grow_ +crē-+ laudā-v- laudō, _praise_ laudā- audī-v- audiō, _hear_ audī-

For other verbs in #-ere# with a perfect stem in #-v-#, and particularly #terō#, #cernō#, #spernō#, and #sternō#, see 962-970.

870. A few verbs in #-ere# have a perfect stem in #-v-# attached to a presumed theme in long #ī#: as, #cupiō#, _want_, #cupīvī#; #petō#, _aim at_, #petīvī#; #quaerō#, _inquire_, #quaesīvī#; #arcēssō#, _fetch_, #arcēssīvī#; see 966-970.

871. A few verbs in #-ēre# also have a perfect stem in #-v-#: as, #fleō#, _weep_, #flēre#, #flēvī#; see 1001-1003. And three verbs in #-ēscere# have a perfect stem in #-v-# attached to a presumed theme in long #ē#: #-olēscō#, _grow_, #-olēvī#; #quiēscō#, _get quiet_, #quiēvī#; #suēscō#, _get used_, #suēvī#.

872. One verb in #-āscere# has a perfect stem in #-v-# attached to a presumed theme in long #ā#: #advesperāscit#, _it gets dusk_, #advesperāvit#.

873. (2.) Many verbs in #-ere# form their perfect stem by adding the suffix #-u-# to a consonant root: as,

PERFECT STEM. VERB. FROM THEME. al-u- alō, _nurture_ +al-+ gen-u- gignō, _beget_ +gen-+

Other examples are: #colō#, _cultivate_, #coluī#; #cōnsulō#, _consult_, #cōnsuluī#; #-cumbō#, _lie_, #-cubuī#; #fremō#, _roar_, #fremuī#; #ēliciō#, _draw out_, #ēlicuī#; #molō#, _grind_, #moluī#; #rapiō#, _snatch_, #rapuī#; #serō#, _string_, #-seruī#; #stertō#, _snore_, #-stertuī#; #strepō#, _make a racket_, #strepuī#; #texō#, _weave_, #texuī#; #volō#, _will_, #voluī#; #compescō#, _check_, #compescuī# (855); see 971-976.

874. Some verbs in #-āre# also have a perfect stem in #-u-#: as, #crepō#, _rattle_, #crepāre#, #crepuī# (993); and many in #-ēre#: as, #moneō#, _warn_, #monēre#, #monuī#: see 1004-1006; also four in #-īre#: as, #saliō#, _leap_, #salīre#, #saluī# (1019).

875. The perfect #potuī# to the present #possum# (751) is from a lost present #*poteō#, #*potēre# (922). #pōnere# (for #*po-sinere#, 112; 170, 2) forms an old perfect #posīvī# (964), later #posuī#, as if #pos-# were the stem.

PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE.

876. The perfect subjunctive stem ends in #-erī-#, for which #-eri-# is sometimes used (35, 2, 3): as,

#rēxeri-m#, #rēxerī-s#, #rēxeri-t#, #rēxerī-mus#, #rēxerī-tis#, #rēxeri-nt#.

877. In the perfect subjunctive, long #ī# is found before the person endings #-s#, #-mus#, and #-tis#, some 25 times, as follows: #-īs#, 18 times (Plaut. 3, Pac., Enn., Ter., Hor., Tib., Sen., inscr., once each, Ov. 8), #-īmus#, 4 times (Plaut. 3, Ter. 1), #-ītis#, 3 times (Plaut. 2, Enn. 1).

878. In the perfect subjunctive, short #i# is found, as in the future perfect, some 9 times, thus: #-is#, 8 times (Plaut. in anapests 3, Verg. 2, Hor. 3), #-imus# once (Verg.). But before #-tis#, short #i# is not found.

PERFECT IMPERATIVE.

879. One verb only, #meminī#, _remember_, has a perfect imperative; in this imperative, the person endings are not preceded by a vowel, thus: #memen-tō#, #memen-tōte#.

PLUPERFECT INDICATIVE.

880. The pluperfect indicative stem ends in #-erā-#, which becomes #-era-# in some of the persons: as,

#rēxera-m#, #rēxerā-s#, #rēxera-t#, #rēxerā-mus#, #rēxerā-tis#, #rēxera-nt#.

PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE.

881. The pluperfect subjunctive stem ends in #-issē-#, which becomes #-isse-# in some of the persons: as,

#rēxisse-m#, #rēxissē-s#, #rēxisse-t#, #rēxissē-mus#, #rēxissē-tis#, #rēxisse-nt#.

FUTURE PERFECT.

882. The future perfect stem ends in #-erō-# and #-eri-#: as,

#rēxerō#, #rēxeri-s#, #rēxeri-t#, #rēxeri-mus#, #rēxeri-tis#, #rēxeri-nt#.

883. In the future perfect, short #i# is found before the person endings #-s#, #-mus#, and #-tis#, some 40 times, as follows: #-is#, 29 times (Plaut. 2, Cic. 1, Catull. 1, Verg. 7, Hor. 12, Ov. 4, Germ. 1, Juv. 1); #-imus#, 3 times (Plaut., Ter., Lucr.); #-itis#, 8 times (Enn. 1, Plaut. 5, Ov. 2).

884. In the future perfect, long #ī# is found, as in the perfect subjunctive, some 33 times, thus: #-īs#, 28 times (Plaut. 3, Hor. 5, Ov. 15, Prop., Stat., Mart., Priap., inscr., once each), #-īmus#, once (Catull.), #-ītis#, 4 times (Ov. 3, Priap. 1).

SHORT OR OLD FORMS.

885. (1.) Some shorter forms in the perfect system are principally found in old Latin.

886. (_a._) Shorter forms in the perfect indicative, the pluperfect subjunctive, and the infinitive, most of them from perfects in #-s-# (867), occur chiefly in verse: thus,

Perfect indicative, second person singular, common: as, #dīxtī# (Plaut., Ter., Cic.); plural, rare: as, #accestis# (Verg.). Pluperfect subjunctive singular, not very common: as, #exstīnxem# (Verg.), #intellēxēs# (Plaut.), #vīxet# (Verg.); plural, once only, #ērēpsēmus# (Hor.). Infinitive, #dīxe# (Plaut.), #cōnsūmpse# (Lucr.).

887. (_b._) A perfect subjunctive stem in #-sī-# or in #-ssī-#, and a future perfect indicative stem in #-s{o|e-}# or in #-ss{o|e-}#, occur chiefly in old laws and prayers, and in dramatic verse: as,

Perfect subjunctive: #faxim#, #faxīs#, FAXSEIS (inscr. 145 B.C.), #faxit#, #faxīmus#, #faxītis#, #faxint#; #ausim#, #ausīs#, #ausit#; #locāssim#, #amāssīs#, #servāssit#, #amāssint#, #prohibēssīs#, #prohibēssit#, #cohibēssit#, #licēssit#.

Future perfect indicative: #faxō#, #faxis#, #faxit#, #faxitis#, #capsō#, #recepsō#, #iussō#, #occīsit#, #capsimus#; #levāssō#, #invītāssitis#, #mulcāssitis#, #exoculāssitis#, #prohibēssis#, #prohibēssint#. Denominatives in #-āre# have also, in old Latin, a future perfect infinitive: as, #impetrāssere#.

888. Passive inflections, as future perfect #faxitur#, #turbāssitur#, deponent MERCASSITVR (inscr. 111 B.C.), are very rare; and, indeed, with the exception of #faxō# and #ausim#, even the active forms had become antiquated by 150 B.C. Denominatives in #-īre# never have the above formations. But #ambiō#, _canvass_, is thought to have a future perfect #ambīssit# twice (Plaut. prol.).

889. (2.) Shortened forms from perfect stems formed by the suffix #-v-# (869) are very common in all periods.

890. (_a._) In tenses formed from perfect stems in #-āv-#, #-ēv-#, and #-ōv-#, #v# is often dropped before #-is-#, #-ēr-#, or #-er-#, and the vowels thus brought together are contracted (153, 1): as,

#laudāvistī#, #laudāstī#; #laudāvistis#, #laudāstis#; #laudāvērunt#, #laudārunt# (but the form in #-re#, as #laudāvēre#, is never contracted); #laudāverim#, #laudārim#, &c.; #laudāveram#, #laudāram#, &c.; #laudāvissem#, #laudāssem#, &c.; #laudāverō#, #laudārō#, &c.; #laudāvisse#, #laudāsse#.

#-plēvistī#, #-plēstī#; #-plēvistis#, #-plēstis#; #-plēvērunt#, #-plērunt#; #plēverim#, #-plērim#, &c.; #-plēveram#, #-plēram#, &c.; #-plēvissem#, #-plēssem#, &c.; #-plēverō#, #-plērō#, &c.; #-plēvisse#, #-plēsse#.

#nōvistī#, #nōstī#; #nōvistis#, #nōstis#; #nōvērunt#, #nōrunt#; #nōverim#, #nōrim#, &c.; #nōveram#, #nōram#, &c.; #nōvissem#, #nōssem#, &c.; #nōverō# always retains the #v#, but #cōgnōrō#, &c.; #nōvisse#, #nōsse#.

891. The verbs in which #v# belongs to the root (864), are not thus shortened, except #moveō#, mostly in compounds. From #iuvō#, #iuerint# (Catull.), #adiuerō# (Enn.), once each, and twice #adiuerit# (Plaut., Ter.) are unnecessary emendations.

892. Contractions in the perfect before #-t# and #-mus# are rare: as, #inrītāt#, #disturbāt#; #suēmus# or #su͡emus# (Lucr.), #nōmus# (Enn.), #cōnsu͡emus# (Prop.).

893. (_b._) In tenses formed from perfect stems in #-īv-#, #v# is often dropped before #-is-#, #-ēr-#, or #-er-#; but contraction is common only in the forms which have #-is-#: as,

#audīvistī#, #audīstī#; #audīvistis#, #audīstis#; #audīvērunt#, #audiērunt#; #audīverim#, #audierim#, &c.; #audīveram#, #audieram#, &c.; #audīvissem#, #audīssem#, &c.; #audīverō#, #audierō#, &c.; #audīvisse#, #audīsse#. Sometimes #audiī#, #audiit#, #audīt#. Intermediate between the long and the short forms are #audīerās# and #audīerit#, once each (Ter.). In the perfect subjunctive, #sinō# has #sīverīs# (Plaut., Cato), #sīrīs# (Plaut., Cato, Liv.), #sīreis# (Pac.), or #seirīs# (Plaut.), #sīrit# (Plaut., Liv.), #sīrītis# (Plaut.), #sīverint# (Plaut., Curt.), #sierint# (Cic., Curt.), or #sīrint# (Plaut.). #dēsinō# is thought to have #dēsīmus# in the perfect indicative a couple of times (Sen., Plin. _Ep._).

NOUNS OF THE VERB.

INFINITIVE.

894. The active infinitive has the ending #-re# in the present, and #-isse# in the perfect: as,

#dare#; #regere#, #capere#; #laudāre#, #monēre#, #audīre#. #rēxisse#; #laudāvisse# or #laudāsse#, #monuisse#, #audīvisse# or #audīsse#.

895. For #-rē# in old Latin, see 134, 2. The infinitive of #fīō#, _become_, ends in #-rī#, #fī̆erī#, with a passive ending (789); twice #fīere# (Enn. Laev.). An older form for #-re# is #-se#, found in #esse#, _to be_, #ēsse#, _to eat_, and their compounds. For #velle#, _to wish_ (#mālle#, #nōlle#), see 166, 8. In the perfect, #eō#, _go_, sometimes has #-iisse# in compounds (766), and in poetry, #petō#, _go to_, has rarely #petiisse#.

896. The present infinitive passive of verbs in #-ere# has the ending #-ī#; that of other verbs has #-rī#: as,

#regī#, #capī#; #laudārī#, #monērī#, #audīrī#. #ferō#, _carry_, has #ferrī#. The length of the #ī# is sometimes indicated by the spelling #ei# (29, 2): as, DAREI.

897. A longer form in #-ier# for #-ī#, and #-rier# for #-rī#, is common in old laws and dramatic verse, and occurs sometimes in other poetry: as, FIGIER, _to be posted_, GNOSCIER, _to be read_ (inscr. 186 B.C.); #dīcier#, _to be said_, #cūrārier#, _to be looked after_ (Plaut.); #dominārier#, _to be lord paramount_ (Verg.).

898. The place of the perfect passive, future active, and future passive infinitive is supplied by a circumlocution, as seen in the paradigms. For the future perfect #-āssere#, see 887.

GERUNDIVE AND GERUND.

899. The gerundive stem is formed by adding #-ndo-#, nominative #-ndus#, #-nda#, #-ndum#, to the present stem: as,

#dandus#, stem #dando-#; #regendus#, #capiendus#; #laudandus#, #monendus#, #audiendus#. Verbs in #-ere# and #-īre# often have #-undus#, when not preceded by #u# or #v#, especially in formal style: as, #capiundus#; #eō#, _go_, always has #eundum#, and #orior#, _rise_, #oriundus#. For the adjective use, see 288. The gerund is like the oblique cases of the neuter singular. For #-bundus#, see 289; #-cundus#, 290.

SUPINE.

900. The supine stem is formed by the suffix #-tu-#, which is often changed to #-su-# (912).

This suffix is attached to a root or to a form of the present stem after the manner of the perfect participle (906): as, #nūntiātum#, _to report_, #nūntiātū#, _in reporting_, stem #nūntiātu-#. Many of the commonest verbs have no supine: as, #sum#, #eō#, #ferō#; #regō#, #emō#, #tegō#; #amō#, #dēleō#, #doceō#, &c., &c.

PRESENT PARTICIPLE.

901. The present participle stem is formed by adding #-nt-# or #-nti-#, nominative #-ns#, to the present stem: as,

#dāns#, _giving_, stems #dant-#, #danti-#; #regēns#, #capiēns#; #laudāns#, #monēns#, #audiēns#.

902. The adjective #sontem# (accusative, no nominative), which was originally the participle of #sum#, has #o# before the suffix, and #absēns# and #praesēns# have #e#; the participle of #eō# has #ē# in the nominative singular, otherwise #u#, #iēns#, #euntis#, &c. #n# rarely drops before #-s# (63): as, LIBES (inscr.), #exsultās# (Enn.), #animās# (Lucr.).

903. Some adjectives which were originally present participles have no verb: as, #clēmēns#, _merciful_, #ēlegāns#, _choice_, #ēvidēns#, _clear_, #frequēns#, _thick_, #petulāns#, _wanton_, #recēns#, _fresh_, #repēns#, _sudden_, &c., &c. For #potēns#, _powerful_, see 922.

FUTURE PARTICIPLE.

904. The future participle suffix is #-tūro-#, nominative #-tūrus#, #-tūra#, #-tūrum#, which is often changed to #-sūro-#, nominative #-sūrus#, #-sūra#, #-sūrum# (912).

This suffix is added to a theme after the manner of the perfect participle (906): as, #rēctūrus#, _going to guide_; #laudātūrus#, _going to praise_.

905. Some future participles have a different formation from that of the perfect participle: as, #mortuus#, _dead_, #moritūrus#; see also in the dictionary #arguō#, #fruor#, #orior#, #ruō#, #secō#. And some verbs have two forms of the future participle: as, #āgnōscō#, #īgnōscō#, #hauriō#, #iuvō#, #pariō#. Some verbs which have no perfect participle have a future participle: as, #acquiēscō#, #appāreō#, #ardeō#, #caleō#, #careō#, #doleō#, #ēsuriō#, #fugiō#, #haereō#, #incidō#, #iaceō#, #-nuō#, #parcō#, #rauciō#, #recidō#, #sonō#, #stō#, #valeō#.

PERFECT PARTICIPLE.

906. The perfect participle suffix is #-to-#, nominative #-tus#, #-ta#, #-tum#, which is often changed to #-so-#, nominative #-sus#, #-sa#, #-sum# (912).

907. The perfect participle was originally active as well as passive, and some participles have retained the active meaning: as,

#adultus#, _grown up_; #ēmersus#, _rising out from_; #exōsus#, #perōsus#, _hating bitterly_; #placitus#, _engaging_; #iūrātus#, _sworn_, #coniūrātus#, _conspiring_; #prānsus#, _having lunched_, #cēnātus#, _having dined_, #pōtus#, _drunk_, &c. The perfect participles of deponents are usually active, but sometimes passive: as, #meditātus#, _having studied_, or _studied_. Many verbs are not accompanied by a perfect participle (811), particularly verbs in #-ēre#, with a parallel adjective in #-idus# (287). Intransitive verbs have usually only the neuter. A perfect active participle #meminēns# is said to have been used twice (Plaut., Laev.).

908. The perfect participle is formed in one of two separate ways:

909. (1.) From a theme consisting of a root; in this way the participles of most verbs in #-ere# and #-ēre# are formed: as,

#gestus#, _carried_, #aptus#, _fit_, #solūtus#, _loosed_ (142), #iūnctus#, _joined_ (831), #sparsus#, _sprinkled_ (170, 3); #doctus#, _taught_.

910. In some consonant root participles of verbs in #-ere#, #-āre#, or #-ēre#, which have the suffix #-u-# in the perfect stem (873), the #-to-# is preceded by a short #i#: as, #genitus#, _born_ (971-976); #domitus#, _tamed_ (993); #monitus#, _warned_ (1003, 1004, 1009). In old Latin, #e# occurs: as, MERETA (41); #e# is retained in #vegetus#, _sprightly_. One participle has #-tuo-#: #mortuus#, _dead_.

911. Some verbs in #-āre# have participles from consonant roots: as, #frictus#, _rubbed_, #fricō#, #fricāre#; see 993. Also some in #-īre#: as, #fartus#, _stuffed_ (170, 3), #farciō#, #farcīre#; #fultus#, _propped_, #fulciō#, #fulcīre#; see 1011-1015, and 1017, 1019, 1020.

912. Roots in #-d-# and #-t-# change #-to-# to #-so-#, before which the dentals change to #s# (159). After long vowels, nasals, and liquids the double #ss# is simplified to #s#: as, #fossus#, _dug_, but #dīvīsus#, _divided_; #vorsus# or #versus#, _turned_. The suffix #-so-# is also found with some roots in #-l-#, #-m-#, or #-r-# and a few others: as, #pulsus# (159).

913. (2.) From a theme in long #ā# or in long #ī#; in this way participles are regularly formed from denominatives in #-āre# or #-īre# respectively: as,

#laudātus#, _praised_; #audītus#, _heard_.

914. A few perfect participles of verbs in #-ere# are formed from a presumed theme in long #ī#, or long #ē#, or from one in long #ū#: as, #petītus#, _aimed at_; #exolētus#, _grown out_; see 967-970; #tribūtus#, _assigned_; see 947, 948.

915. (1.) Many perfect participles formed from consonant roots have a short root vowel (135, 1): as,

#adspectus#, _beheld_; #captus#, _taken_; #coctus#, _cooked_; #commentus#, _devising_; #cultus#, _tilled_; #dictus#, _said_, verb #dīcō#; #ductus#, _led_, #dūcō#; #factus#, _made_; #fossus#, _dug_; #gestus#, _carried_; #inlectus#, _allured_; #questus#, _complaining_; #raptus#, _seized_; #tersus#, _neat_; #textus#, _woven_; #vorsus#, _turned_.

916. (2.) Some perfect participles formed from consonant roots have a long root vowel, sometimes even when the vowel of the parallel present stem is short (135, 1; 122, _f_): as,

#fīxus#, _fastened_, verb #fīgō#; #-flīctus#, _dashed_, #-flīgō#; #pāstus#, _fed_, #pāscō#; #pollūctus#, _offered up_, #pollūceō#; #scrīptus#, _written_, _scrībō_; #-cāsus#, _fallen_, #cadō#. Also #āctus#, _driven_, #agō#; #vīsus#, _seen_, #videō#; #frūctus#, _enjoying_, #fruor#; #lēctus#, _culled_, #legō#; #pīctus#, _painted_, #pingō#; #rēctus#, _ruled_, #regō#; #ēsus#, _eaten_, #edō#; #strūctus#, _piled_, #struō#; #tēctus#, _covered_, #tegō#; #ūnctus#, _anointed_, #unguō#; #frāctus#, _broken_, #frangō#; #pāctus#, _fixed_, #pangō#. Furthermore, #iūnctus#, _joined_, #iungō#; #sānctus#, _hallowed_, #sanciō# (831); also, #fūnctus#, _having performed_, #fungor#.

917. (1.) Most perfect participles formed from vowel roots have a long root vowel: as,

#lātus#, _borne_ (169, 1); #nātus#, _born_; #-plētus#, _filled_; #trītus#, _worn_; #nōtus#, _known_; #sūtus#, _sewed_. So also an isolated #rūtus#, in the law phrase #rūta caesa#, or #rūta et caesa#, _diggings and cuttings_, i.e. _minerals and timber_.

918. (2.) Ten perfect participles formed from vowel roots have a short root vowel; they are:

citus, datus, _hurried_, _given_ itum, ratus, _gone_, _thinking_ -rutus, satus, _fallen_, _planted_ situs, status, _lying_, _set_ litus, quitus, _besmeared_, _been able_