Part 2

Definitions and Classifications, 1714-1716. Primary and Secondary Tenses, 1717. Virtual Futures, 1718. Mood of the Subordinate Sentence, 1720-1731. The Indicative, 1721. The Subjunctive: In Indirect Discourse, and in cases of Attraction, 1722-1729. Of Repeated Action, 1730. As in the Simple Sentence, 1731. Tense of the Subordinate Sentence, 1732-1772. Of the Indicative, 1732-1739. Of the Subjunctive, 1740-1772. Sequence of Tenses, 1745-1772. Tense subordinate to an Indicative, 1746-1761. Tense subordinate to a Subjunctive, 1762-1765. Tense subordinate to a Noun of the Verb, 1766-1769. Subjunctive due to another Subjunctive or to an Infinitive, 1770-1772. The Indirect Question, 1773-1791. In General, 1773-1774. Yes or No Questions, 1775-1777. Alternative Questions, 1778-1784. Pronoun Questions, 1785. Original Subjunctives, 1786. Indicative Questions apparently Indirect, 1787-1791. The Relative Sentence, 1792-1837. Agreement of the Relative, 1801-1811. Moods in the Relative Sentence, 1812-1830. Relative Sentences of Purpose, 1817. Of Characteristic or Result, 1818-1823. Of Cause or Concession, 1824-1830. Correlative Sentences, 1831. Relative Sentences Combined, 1832-1834. The Relative introducing a main Sentence, 1835-1837. The Conjunctive Particle Sentence, 1838-2122. Introduced by #quod#, 1838-1855. #quia#, 1856-1858. #quom# or #cum#, 1859-1881. quoniam#, 1882-1884. #quotiēns#, #quotiēnscumque#, 1885-1887. quam#, 1888-1898. #quamquam#, 1899-1902. #quamvīs#, 1903-1907. #tamquam#, 1908-1910. #antequam#, #priusquam#, 1911-1922. #postquam#, #ubī̆#, ut#, #cum prīmum#, #simul atque#, 1923-1934. #ut#, 1935-1970. #ubī̆#, 1971. quō#, 1972-1976. #quōminus#, 1977-1979. #quīn#, 1980-1990. #dum#, #dōnec#, quoad#, #quamdiū#, 1991-2009. #quandō#, 2010-2014. #sī#, 2015-2115. #etsī#, tametsī#, #etiamsī#, 2116. #quasi#, #tamquam sī#, #ut# or #velut sī#, 2117-2122. Connection of Separate Sentences or Periods, 2123-2159. Without a Connective, 2124-2127. With a Connective, 2128-2158. Affirmative Coordination, 2159. Nouns of the Verb, 2160-2299. THE INFINITIVE, 2160-2236. Definitions, 2160-2163. The Infinitive of Purpose, 2164-2165. With Adjectives, 2166. _The Infinitive as Object_: The Complementary Infinitive, 2168-2171. The Accusative with the Infinitive, 2172-2206. _The Infinitive as Subject_, 2207-2215. The Infinitive of Exclamation, 2216. _Tenses of the Infinitive_, 2218. Present, 2219-2222. Perfect, 2223-2231. Future, 2232-2236. THE GERUNDIVE AND GERUND, 2237-2268. Definitions, 2237-2242. Nominative, 2243-2249. Accusative, 2250-2253. Dative, 2254-2257. Genitive, 2258-2264. Ablative, 2265-2268. THE SUPINE, 2269-2277. Definitions, 2269. Supine in #-um#, 2270-2273. Supine in #-ū#, 2274-2277. THE PARTICIPLE, 2278-2299. Definition, 2278. Time of the Participle, 2279-2281. The Attributive Participle, 2282-2286. The Substantive Participle, 2287-2292. The Appositive Participle, 2293-2296. The Predicative Participle, 2297-2299.

APPENDIX, 2300-2745.

Some Occasional Peculiarities of Verbs, 2300-2307. The Conative Use, 2301-2303. The Causative Use, 2304. The Potential Use, 2305. The Obligatory Use, 2306. The Permissive Use, 2307. Indirect Discourse, 2308-2334. Definitions, 2308-2311. Mood, 2312-2320. Tense, 2321-2324. Pronoun, 2325. Conditional Periods in Indirect Discourse, 2326-2334. Use of Pronouns, 2335-2403. Personal, 2335. Reflexive, 2336-2343. Equivalents for a Reciprocal Pronoun, 2344-2345. Possessive, 2346. Demonstrative, 2347-2364. Determinative, 2365-2370. Pronoun of Identity, 2371-2373. Intensive, 2374-2384. Interrogative, 2385-2386. Relative, 2387. Indefinite, 2388-2403. Numerals, 2404-2428. Classification, 2404. List of Numerals, 2405. Notation, 2406-2411. Some forms of Numerals, 2412-2418. Some uses of Numerals, 2419-2422 Other Numerals, 2423. Fractions, 2424-2428. Prosody, 2429-2739. RULES OF QUANTITY, 2429-2472. In Classical Latin, 2429-2457. Position, 2458. Hidden Quantity, 2459-2463. Peculiarities of Quantity in Old Latin, 2464-2469. Iambic Shortening, 2470-2472. FIGURES OF PROSODY, 2473-2510. Hiatus, 2473-2480. Elision, 2481-2492. Ecthlipsis, 2493-2496. Semi-Hiatus or Semi-Elision, 2497. Synaloepha, 2498. Synizesis, 2499. Synaeresis, 2500. Dialysis, 2501. Diaeresis, 2502. Hardening, 2503. Softening, 2504. Diastolé, 2505-2506. Systolé, 2507. Syncopé, 2508. Tmesis, 2509. Synapheia, 2510. VERSIFICATION, 2511-2739. Definitions, 2511-2548. Numeri Italici, 2549. The Saturnian, 2550-2554. Dactylic Rhythms, 2555-2580. Iambic Rhythms, 2581-2627. Trochaic Rhythms, 2628-2649. Logaoedic Rhythms, 2650-2074. Dactylo-Trochaic Rhythms, 2675-2681. Anapaestic Rhythms, 2682-2690. Cretic Rhythms, 2691-2697. Bacchiac Rhythms, 2698-2706. Choriambic Rhythms, 2707. Ionic Rhythms, 2708-2717. Lyric Metres of Horace, 2718-2737. Lyric Strophes of Catullus, 2738. Index of Horatian Odes and their metres, 2739. Abbreviations used in citing the Authors, 2740-2745.

Index of Subjects.

Index of Latin Words.

LATIN GRAMMAR

1. Latin Grammar has two parts. I. The first part treats of words: (A.) their sound; (B.) their formation; (C.) their inflection. II. The second part shows how words are joined together in sentences.

PART FIRST [decoration] WORDS

PARTS OF SPEECH.

2. The principal kinds of words or PARTS OF SPEECH are _Nouns_, _Verbs_, and _Conjunctions_.

3. I. NOUNS are _Substantive_ or _Adjective_.

4. (A.) NOUNS SUBSTANTIVE, otherwise called Substantives, are divided, as to meaning, into _Concrete_ and _Abstract_.

5. (1.) CONCRETE SUBSTANTIVES denote persons or things. Concrete Substantives are subdivided into _Proper Names_, which denote individual persons or things: as, #Cicerō#, _Cicero_; #Rōma#, _Rome_; and _Common Names_, otherwise called _Appellatives_, which denote one or more of a class: as, #homo#, _man_; #taurus#, _bull_.

6. Appellatives which denote a collection of single things are called _Collectives_: as, #turba#, _crowd_; #exercitus#, _army_. Appellatives which denote stuff, quantity, material, things not counted, but having measure or weight, are called _Material Substantives_: as, #vīnum#, _wine_; #ferrum#, _iron_; #faba#, _horsebeans_.

7. (2.) ABSTRACT SUBSTANTIVES denote qualities, states, conditions: as, #rubor#, _redness_; #aequitās#, _fairness_; #sōlitūdō#, _loneliness_.

8. (B.) NOUNS ADJECTIVE, otherwise called Adjectives, attached to substantives, describe persons or things: as, #ruber#, _red_; #aequus#, _fair_; #sōlus#, _alone_.

9. PRONOUNS are words of universal application which serve as substitutes for nouns.

Thus, #taurus#, _bull_, names, and #ruber#, _red_, describes, particular things; but #ego#, _I_, is universally applicable to any speaker, and #meus#, _mine_, to anything belonging to any speaker.

10. ADVERBS are mostly cases of nouns used to denote manner, place, time or degree: as, #subitō#, _suddenly_; #forās#, _out of doors_; #diū#, _long_; #valdē#, _mightily_, _very_.

11. PREPOSITIONS are adverbs which are used to modify as prefixes the meaning of verbs, or to define more nicely the meaning of cases: as, #vocō#, _I call_, #ēvocō#, _I call out_; #ex urbe#, _from town_.

12. II. VERBS are words which denote action, including existence or condition: as, #regit#, _he guides_; #est#, _he is_; #latet#, _he is hid_.

13. III. CONJUNCTIONS connect sentences, nouns, or verbs: as, #et#, _and_; #sed#, _but_.

14. INTERJECTIONS are cries which express feeling, and are not usually a part of the sentence: as, #ā#, _ah_; #heu#, _alas_.

15. There is no ARTICLE in Latin: thus, #mēnsa# may denote _table_, _a table_, or _the table_.

[Erratum: 2 ... _Nouns_, _Verbs_, and _Conjunctions_. _Nouns_ _Verbs_,]

A. SOUND.

ALPHABET.

16. In Cicero’s time, the sounds of the Latin language were denoted by twenty-one letters (_DN._ 2, 93).

Character Name pronounced #A# a _ah_ #B# be _bay_ #C# ce _kay_ #D# de _day_ #E# e _eh_ #F# ef _ef_ #G# ge _gay_ #H# ha _hah_ #I# i _ee_ #K# ka _kah_ #L# el _el_ #M# em _em_ #N# en _en_ #O# o _o_ #P# pe _pay_ #Q# qu _koo_ #R# er _air_ #S# es _ess_ #T# te _tay_ #V# u _oo_ #X# ix _eex_

The names given above are those employed by Roman grammarians. The sound indicated by _-ay_ is only approximate; the true sound is that of the French _ê_ in _fête_; see 39. The names of the letters are indeclinable; for their gender, see 412.

17. Two other letters were also in use to represent Greek sounds in Greek words; these were always called by their Greek names, and were placed at the end of the alphabet; they are #Y#, named _ü_ (42), and #Z#, named #zēta# (71).

18. ORIGIN OF THE ALPHABET. The Latin alphabet, which originally consisted of capitals only, was adapted from the alphabet of Chalcidian colonies in Italy.

19. SPELLING. The signs for the Greek sounds denoted by φ and χ, and perhaps also that for θ, these three sounds being unknown in Latin, were used as numerals (2407). In words borrowed from the Greek the Romans at first represented θ by #t#, φ by #p#, and χ by #c#: as, #tūs#, _incense_, for θύος; #Poenī#, _Punians_, for Φοίνικες; #calx#, _chalk_, for χάλιξ. Occasionally also the Latin mute was doubled: as, #struppus#, _strap_, for στρόφος. Later, about the middle of the second century B.C., #th#, #ph#, and #ch# begin to be used: as, #cothurnus#, _boot_, for κόθορνος; #amphora#, _jar_, for ἀμφόρα; #Achaea# for Ἀχαιά. In some instances these aspirates were next introduced even into words purely Latin: as, #chommodus#, _affable_, for #commodus#, an affectation ridiculed by Catullus (Cat. 84) and disapproved by Quintilian (1, 5, 20). But #pulcher#, _pretty_, is the usual spelling for #pulcer# (formed by the suffix #-cro-# from the stem of the verb #poliō#, _I polish_). Even Cicero (_O._ 160) aspirated the #c# in this word as a concession to popular usage, as he did the #t# in #Cethēgus#, #Karthāgō#, and the #p# in #triumphus#, while he retained the unaspirated explosive in the proper names #Orcīvius#, _name of a ‘gens,’_ #Matō#, #Otō#, #Caepiō#, and in #sepulcrum#, _tomb_; #corōna#, _crown_; and #lacrima#, _tear_. In a similar manner Greek ρ was at first transcribed by #r#: as, #rumpia#, _a kind of weapon_, for ῥομφαία; but later by #rh#: as, #rhētor#, _rhetorician_, for ῥητωρ.

20. The letters #C# (first written #<#) and #K# were at an early period used promiscuously, and #C# stood for both unvoiced #k# and voiced #g#: as, VIRCO, #virgō#, _virgin_. Afterwards #K# dropped out of general use except in the abbreviations #K.# or #Kal.# for #kalendae#, _first of the month_, and #K.# for the proper name #Kaesō# (Quint. 1, 7, 10). About 300 B.C. the sign #<# or #C# was used for the unvoiced _k_ alone, while a separate sign, which became #G#, was set apart for the voiced _g_. But #C# continued to be used for _g_ in the abbreviations #C# for #Gāius#, #Ↄ# for #Gāia#, and #Cn.# for #Gnaeus#. Occasionally #q# is written for #c#, almost always before the vowels #o# and #u#: as, #qum# for #cum#, _with_; #qolunt# for #colunt#, _they cultivate_; #peqūnia#, _money_. But ordinarily #q# is found before unsyllabic (consonantal) #u# (#v#) only (22).

21. Before the introduction of #Y# and #Z# (17), #u# was used for the Greek υ: as, #Burrus#, later #Pyrrhus# (Cic. _O._ 160); and #s#, or, as a medial, #ss#, for ζ: as, #sōna#, _belt_, later #zōna#; #massa#, _lump_, for μᾶζα; #malacissō#, _I soften_, for μαλακίζω. By a blunder, #y# was occasionally introduced in words of Latin origin: as, #lacryma#, _tear_, for #lacrima#, which was wrongly supposed to be derived from Greek δάκρυ.

22. The characters #I# and #V# represent not only the two vowels #i# and #u#, but also their cognate semivowels (52) #i̭# and #ṷ# (83), called commonly _consonant_ #i# and #u#, but with less ambiguity _unsyllabic_ #i# and #u# (82; 83). They are equivalent to the English _y_ and _w_ respectively.

23. In words like #maior#, simple #i# was commonly written for the sound of #i̭i̭# (153, 2; 82; 83). But Cicero in such cases wrote #ii#: as, #aiiō#, _I say_, #Maiia#, #Troiia# (Quint. 1, 4, 11). In the same way Lucretius spelled #Graiiugenārum#, _of Greek-born men_, and EIIVS, _of him_, CVIIVS, _whose_, occur in inscriptions. Sometimes the same sound is represented by a taller letter, ‘_i longa_,’ especially in the imperial age: as, MAIOR, _greater_. There are also cases in which the two designations were confounded, a double #i# being written, and one or the other letter made taller: as, EIIVS or EIIVS, _of him_.

24. The tall #i#, #I longa#, was used not only to represent unsyllabic #i# (22), but, beginning with Sulla’s time, also for long vowel #i# (29, 2, _b_): as, SIGNA, _signs_; QVINQVE, _five_. It also represents sometimes double #i#: as, VIS for VIĪS, _in the roads_. At the beginning of words it occurs without reference to quantity for both short and long #i#, and, by mistake, #I# is elsewhere found for short #i#.

25. The emperor Claudius (A.D. 41-54) introduced a separate sign for unsyllabic #u# (22), restricting the sign #v# to the vowel #u# (Quint. 1, 7, 26; Ta. 11, 14); but it did not become current.

26. In schoolbooks and most texts of the authors, the vowel #u# is printed #U#, #u#, and the consonant #V#, #v#. A character, #J#, #j#, was introduced in the 17th century, to indicate the consonant #i#. But this character is no longer usual in editions of the authors or in schoolbooks.

27. The distinction between #u# and #v# is not always made very consistently: #q# has regularly, and #g# and #s# have sometimes, an aftersound of _w_, best represented by #v#; but the usual practice is to write #u#, as in the following disyllables: #quōrum#, _of whom_; #anguis#, _snake_; #suāvis#, _sweet_. #qu# is always counted as a single sound (177). See also 2504.

28. For the intermediate sound (103) between #i# and #u#, as in the first syllable of #lubet#, #libet#, _it pleases_, and in the second syllable of #optimus#, #optumus#, _best_ (Quint. 1, 4, 8; 7, 21), the emperor Claudius invented a separate character. It failed of acceptance, as did also the sign which he attempted to introduce for #ps#.

29. The same characters were ordinarily used to denote both long and short vowels. But at different periods long vowels were sometimes indicated in inscriptions thus:

(1.) Long #a#, #e#, or #u# was sometimes doubled: as, AARA, _altar_; PAASTORES, _shepherds_; LEEGE, _by law_; IVVS, _right_. This doubling, which was never frequent, seems to have been introduced into Latin from the Oscan by the poet Accius. It occurs most frequently in inscriptions about the year 150 B.C., but sporadically much later: as, CONVENTVVS, _of the assembly_; ARBITRATVV, _by the decree_; and in other stems in #-u-# (593).

(2.) Long #i# was often denoted (_a._) By the spelling #ei# (after the pronunciation of this diphthong had been changed to #ī#, 98): as, DAREI, _be given_; REDIEIT, _hath come back_; INTERIEISTI, _hast died_. Some Roman grammarians prescribed this spelling for every long #i#; others tried to regulate the use of #ei# for #ī# by special rules. At the end of the republic, the spelling EI had given way to uniform I. (_b._) Since the time of Sulla, by a taller letter (‘_i longa_’): as, FIXA, _fastened_ (23, 24).

(3.) A mark called an _apex_ ([illustration]) was often put over a long vowel: as, FE͆CIT, _made_; HORTE͆NSIVS; DVV͆MVIRATVS, _duumvirate_. The apex was written ´ in the imperial age; the form -, which occurs in an inscription, was adopted by the grammarians, and is still in use to mark the long vowels. It may be mentioned that inscriptions which employ the apex are by no means consistent in its use, and that late inscriptions have it over short and long vowels, apparently for decorative purposes. Quintilian 1, 7, 2 prescribes it only for cases which otherwise might be ambiguous: as, MÁLVS (#mālus#), _mast_, to distinguish it from MALVS (#malus#), _bad_.

30. In schoolbooks, a long vowel is indicated by a horizontal line over it: as, #āra#, _altar_; #mēnsis#, _month_; #ōrdō#, _series_. A short vowel is sometimes indicated by a curved mark: as, #pĕr#, _through_; #dŭx#, _leader_; but this mark is unnecessary if long vowels are systematically marked. Usually the quantity of the vowels in each word is definitely fixed; but in a few cases the same vowel may be now short, now long, as in English the _ee_ of _been_ is pronounced long by some (_bean_), short by others (_bin_). Thus (2446) #mihi#, #ibi# were sometimes pyrrhics (⏑, 2522), sometimes iambi (⏑ -, 2521). See for other cases 134, 2443, 2452, 2453. Such vowels of variable quantity are termed _common_ and marked ⏓ or ⏒: as #mihī̆#, _to me_ (2514).

PRONUNCIATION.

31. The pronunciation of Latin sounds may be approximately determined: (_a_) from the description of the native grammarians and incidental allusions in other Latin authors; (_b_) from variations in spelling; (_c_) from the Greek transliteration of Latin words; (_d_) from the Latin transliteration of foreign words; (_e_) from the development of the sounds in languages derived from the Latin.

VOWELS.

32. Vowels are sounds which are produced by the vibrations of the vocal chords (this may be easily felt by placing a finger on the throat at the Adam’s apple) and without any audible friction or any obstruction anywhere in the passage above the vocal chords. The difference in the sound of the vowels is due to the different shape which the position of the tongue and the lips gives in each case to the cavity of the mouth. During the pronunciation of pure vowels no air escapes through the nose.

33. The simple vowels, #a#, #e#, #i#, #o#, #u# (#y#), are either _long_ or _short_. The sound of a long vowel is considered to be twice the length of that of a short.

34. That a long vowel is equal to two shorts is a rule of metrical theory (see 2515). In actual pronunciation, there were undoubtedly various degrees of length, as in English: e.g., _sea_, _seize_ (long), _cease_ (half-long).

QUANTITY OF VOWELS.

The quantity of vowels must in general be learned by observation; but some convenient helps for the memory may be found in 2429; and the quantity of many vowels may be ascertained by the general principles given in 35 and 36. Except in the case of _Hidden Quantity_ (2459), the quantity of vowels is in general ascertained from verse. But some information may also be gleaned from such rhetorical prose as exhibits well defined habits in the rhythmical endings selected for sentences (#clausulae#, Cic. _O._ 191-226).

(A.) SHORT VOWELS.

35. A vowel is short:

(1.) Before another vowel or #h# (124): as, #eōs#, #ēvehō#; compare #taceō# with #tacēre#. For exceptions in classical Latin, see 127; for exceptions in early Latin see 126.

(2.) Before #nt# and #nd# (128) if not the result of contraction: as, #calendae#, #centum#; compare #amant#, #amandus#, with #amāre#.

(3.) Before final #t# and #m#, and, in words of more than one syllable, before final #r# and #l# (132): compare #amat#, #amem#, with #amās# and #amēs#.

(B.) LONG VOWELS.

36. All vowels are long which are:

(1) Weakened from a diphthong (96-101; 108), or which are the result of contraction (118): as, #concīdō# from #caedō#; #cōgō# from #co-agō#.

(2) Lengthened by compensation (121): as, #quīnī# for #*quincnī#.

(3) Before #nf#, #ns#, often before #nc# followed by a consonant, and, in some cases, before #gn# (122).

PRONUNCIATION OF VOWELS.

37. The following English sounds come nearest to the Latin pronunciation of the vowels:

38. LONG VOWELS. #ā# had the sound of _a_ in _father_; #ē# that of _a_ in _fate_ (but see 39); #ī# that of _i_ in _machine_; #ō# that of _o_ in _tone_; #ū# that of _u_ in _rule_.

39. It must be noted, however, that all English long vowels, save _a_ as in _father_, are more or less diphthongal, that is, they become gradually closer (46); _a_ in _fate_ ends in a vanishing sound of _ee_ (not heard in the _ê_ of French _fête_), and _o_ in _no_ ends in the sound of _oo_. Similarly the long _e_ sound in _he_ becomes closer and ends in a sound similar to the _y_ in _year_. In Latin all long vowels had one sustained sound.

40. SHORT VOWELS. #a# sounded approximately like the English _a_ in the first syllable of _aha_; #e#, #i#, #o#, and #u# sounded like _e_ in _step_, _i_ in _pit_, _o_ in _obey_, and _u_ in _pull_ respectively.

41. Latin short #a# did not differ, except in quantity, from long #ā#; it never had the ‘flat’ sound of English _a_ in _pat_. In the case of the other vowels, #i#, #e#, #o#, and #u#, the long vowels were closer (46) than the short ones. This is the same difference which the English shows in _keen_ (long and close) and _kin_ (short and open); _pool_ (long and close) and _pull_ (short and open). For this reason, open #i# is sometimes represented by #e# in inscriptions: as, ANEMA for #anima#, _soul_; and #vea# was the rustic pronunciation for #via#, _road_ (Varro, _R. R._ 1, 2, 14).

42. #Y#, which was a sound borrowed from the Greek (17), sounded like German _ü_. The sound, which is missing in English, is formed with the tongue in position for _i_ (in _kin_) and the lips rounded as for _oo_ (in _moon_).

CLASSIFICATION OF VOWELS.

43. Vowels are divided according to the position of the tongue. Latin #i# and #e# are called _front vowels_, because the front part of the tongue is elevated. This elevation is greater for #i# than for #e#. Latin #o# and #u# are called _back vowels_, because they require an elevation of the rear part of the tongue. This elevation is greater for #u# than for #o#. Latin #a# holds an intermediate position, no part of the tongue being raised, while the front part is depressed.

44. In the formation of #i# and #e#, the tongue approaches the hard palate; hence these two vowels are also called _palatal vowels_. Similarly, #o# and #u# are called _velar_ or _guttural vowels_, because in their formation the tongue approaches the soft palate (#vēlum palātī#).

45. #o# and #u# require a rounding of the lips (#labia#); hence they are called _labial vowels_. The same is true for #y#.

46. Comparing the vowels in English _keen_ and _kin_, it will be noted that the passage between the tongue and the hard palate is narrower in the former than in the latter case. The _ee_ in _keen_ is therefore said to be a _narrow_ or _close_ vowel, while the _i_ in _kin_ is _wide_ or _open_. See 41.

DIPHTHONGS.

47. Two unlike (43-46) vowels pronounced under one stress and as one syllable form a _Diphthong_. All diphthongs are long.

In all diphthongs the transition from one vowel to the other is gradual. A diphthong is, therefore, not formed simply by pronouncing two vowels in succession, but the vocal organs pass through all the intermediate positions and consequently the sound is constantly changing.

48. In their origin diphthongs are of two kinds: (_a._) primitive diphthongs: as in #foedus#, _treaty_; #aurum#, _gold_; or (_b._) secondary diphthongs, the result of vowels meeting in formation, composition, or inflection: see 120.