A Latin Grammar for Schools and Colleges

Part 16

Chapter 162,435 wordsPublic domain

#quīdam#, #quaedam#, #quiddam# or #quoddam#, _a_, _a certain_, _some one_, _so and so_; Ac. #quendam#, #quandam#. Pl. G. #quōrundam#, #quārundam#.

#quīlibet#, #quaelibet#, #quidlibet# or #quodlibet#, _any you please_.

#quisnam#, rarely #quīnam#, #quaenam#, #quidnam# or #quodnam#, _who ever? who in the world?_ Sometimes #nam quis#, &c.

#quispiam#, #quaepiam#, #quippiam#, #quidpiam# or #quodpiam#, _any_, _any one_; Ab. also #quīpiam# (689), sometimes as adverb, _in any way_.

#quisquam#, #quicquam# or #quidquam#, _anybody at all_, _anything at all_, generally a substantive, less frequently an adjective, _any at all_. There is no distinctive feminine form, and #quisquam# and #quemquam# are rarely, and in old Latin, used as a feminine adjective. Ab. also #quīquam# (689), sometimes as adverb, _in any way at all_. No plural.

#quisque#, #quaeque#, #quicque#, #quidque# or #quodque#, _each_. Sometimes #ūnus# is prefixed: #ūnusquisque#; both parts are declined. #quisque# and #quemque# are sometimes feminine. Ab. S. #quīque# (689) rare, Ab. Pl. #quīsque# (688) once (Lucr.).

#quīvīs#, #quaevīs#, #quidvīs# or #quodvīs#, _which you will_; Ab. also #quīvīs# (689).

(2.) #uter#.

693. #uter#, #utra#, #utrum#, _whether? which of the two?_ has the genitive singular #utrīus#, and the dative singular #utrī#.

The rest is like #aeger# (617). #uter# is sometimes relative, _whichsoever_, or indefinite, _either of the two_.

DERIVATIVES OF #uter#.

694. The derivatives of #uter# are declined like #uter#; they are:

#neuter#, _neither of the two_, genitive #neutrīus#, always with #ī# (657). When used as a grammatical term, _neuter_, the genitive is always #neutrī#: as, #generis neutrī#, _of neither gender_.

#utercumque#, #utracumque#, #utrumcumque#, _whichever of the two_, _either of the two_.

#uterlibet#, _whichever you please_.

#uterque#, _whichsoever_, _both_. G. always #utriusque# (657).

#utervīs#, _whichever you wish_.

#alteruter#, F. #altera utra#, Ne. #alterutrum# or #alterum utrum#, _one or the other_, G. #alterīus utrīus#, once late #alterutrīus#, D. #alterutrī#, Ac. M. #alterutrum# or #alterum utrum#, F. #alterutram# once (Plin.) or #alteram utram#, Ab. #alterutrō# or #alterō utrō#, F. #alterā utrā#. No Pl., except D. #alterutrīs# once (Plin.).

CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS.

695. Pronouns often correspond with each other in meaning and form; some of the commonest correlatives are the following:

Int. Interrogative Indef. Indefinite Dem., Det. Demonstrative, Determinative, &c. Rel. Relative.

THE ADVERB, THE CONJUNCTION, AND THE PREPOSITION.

I. NOUNS AS ADVERBS.

696. Adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions are chiefly noun or pronoun cases which have become fixed in a specific form and with a specific meaning. Many of these words were still felt to be live cases, even in the developed period of the language; with others the consciousness of their noun character was lost.

697. Three cases are used adverbially: the accusative, the ablative, and the locative.

698. The rather indeterminate meaning of the accusative and the ablative is sometimes more exactly defined by a preposition. The preposition may either accompany its usual case: as, #adamussim, admodum, īlicō#; or it may be loosely prefixed, with more of the nature of an adverb than of a preposition, to a case with which it is not ordinarily used: as, #examussim, intereā#. Sometimes it stands after the noun: as, #parumper#, _a little while_. Besides the three cases named above, other forms occur, some of which are undoubtedly old case endings, though they can no longer be recognized as such: see 710.

[Erratum: 698. . invisible]

(1.) ACCUSATIVE.

(_a._) ACCUSATIVE OF SUBSTANTIVES.

699. #domum#, _homeward, home_; #rūs#, _afield_; #forās#, _out of doors_ #(*forā-); vicem#, _instead_; #partim#, _in part_; old #noenum# or #noenu#, common #nōn#, for #ne-oenum#, i.e. #ūnum#, _not one, naught, not_; #admodum#, _to a degree, very_; #adamussim, examussim#, _to a #T#_; #adfatim#, _to satiety_; #invicem#, _in turn, each other_.

700. Many adverbs in #-tim# and #-sim# denote manner (549): as, #cautim#, _warily_, #statim#, _at once_, #sēnsim#, _perceptibly, gradually_; #ōstiātim#, _door by door_, #virītim#, _man by man_, #fūrtim#, _stealthily_.

(_b._) ACCUSATIVE OF ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS.

701. Neuters: all comparative adverbs in #-ius# (361): as, #doctius#, _more learnedly_; so #minus#, _less_, #magis#, _more_ (363). #prīmum#, _first_, #secundum#, secondly, &c.; #tum#, _then_ (#to-#, _that_): #commodum#, _just in time_; #minimum#, _at least_, #potissimum#, _in preference_, #postrēmum#, _at last_, #summum#, _at most_; #versum#, _toward_, #rursum, russum, rūsum#, _back_; #facile#, _easily_, #impūne#, _scotfree_, #recēns#, _lately_, #semel#, _once_ (#simili-#), #simul#, _together_ (#simili-#). Plural: #cētera#, _for the rest_; #quia#, _because_ (#qui-#); in old Latin #frūstra#, _in vain_ (#fraud-#).

702. Feminines: #bifāriam#, _twofold_; #cōram#, _face to face_ (#com-# or #co-, *ōrā-#); #tam#, _so_ (#tā-#, _that_); #quam#, _as, how_. Plural: #aliās#, _on other occasions_.

(2.) ABLATIVE.

(_a._) ABLATIVE OF SUBSTANTIVES.

703. #domō#, _from home_, #rūre#, _from the country_; #hodiē#, _to-day_ (#ho-#, #diē-#), #volgō#, _publicly_, #vespere#, _by twilight_, #noctū#, _by nights_, _nights_, #lūce#, _by light_, #tempore#, _in times_, _betimes_; #sponte#, _voluntarily_, #forte#, _by chance_; #quotannīs#, _yearly_; #grātiīs# or #grātīs#, _for nothing_, #ingrātiīs# or #ingrātīs#, _against one’s will_; #īlicō#, _on the spot_ (169, 4; 170, 2), #forīs#, _out of doors_ (#*forā-#).

(_b._) ABLATIVE OF ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS.

704. Many adverbs in #-ō# are formed from adjectives of time: as, #perpetuō#, _to the end_, #crēbrō#, _frequently_, #rārō#, _seldom_, #repentīnō#, _suddenly_, #sērō#, _late_, #prīmō#, _at first_. Many denote manner: as, #arcānō#, _privily_, #sēriō#, _in earnest_. Some are formed from participles: as, #auspicātō#, _with auspices taken_; #compositō#, _by agreement_. A plural is rare: #alternīs#, _alternately_.

705. Instead of #-ō#, neuter ablatives commonly have #-ē#: as, #longē#, _far_, #doctē#, _wisely_. So also superlatives: #facillimē#, _most easily_, anciently FACILVMED (362). Consonant stems have #-e#: as, #repente#, _suddenly_.

706. From pronouns some end in #-ī# (689): as, #quī#,_ how?_ indefinite, #quī#, _somehow_; #atquī#, _but somehow_; #quī-quam#, _in any way at all_.

707. Feminines: many in #-ā#: #ūnā#, _together_; #circā#, _around_; #contrā#, _against_ (#com-#, 347); #extrā#, _outside_ (#ex#, 347); in classical Latin, #frūstrā#, _in vain_ (#fraud-#). So, especially, adverbs denoting the ‘route by which:’ #hāc#, _this way_; #rēctā#, _straightway_.

(3.) LOCATIVE.

708. In #-ī#, from names of towns and a few other words: #Karthāginī#, _at Carthage_; #Rōmae#, for #Rōmāī#, _at Rome_; #domī#, _at home_; #illī#, commonly #illī-c#, _there_ (#illo-#), #istī#, commonly #istī-c#, _where you are_, #hī-c#, _here_ (#ho-#); old #sei#, common #sī#, _at that_, _in that case_, _so_, _if_; #sīc#, _so_ (#sī#, #-ce#).

709. In #-bī̆#, from some pronouns: #ibī̆#, _there_ (#i-#); #ubī̆# (for #*quobī̆#, 146), _where_; #alicubī̆#, _somewhere_; #sī-cubi#, _if anywhere_, #nē-cubi#, _lest anywhere_.

[Erratum: 708 ... #domī#, _at home_; ; missing]

OTHER ENDINGS.

710. Besides the above, other endings are also found in words of this class: as,

#-s# in #abs#, _from_, #ex#, _out of_; similarly #us-que#, _in every case_, _ever_, #us-quam#, _anywhere at all_. #-tus# has the meaning of an ablative: as, #intus#, _from within_, _within_; #antīquitus#, _from old times_, _anciently_; #funditus#, _from the bottom_, _entirely_. #-ō# denotes the ‘place to which’ in adverbs from pronoun stems: as, #eō#, _thither_; #quō#, _whither_; #illō#, or #illūc#, for #illoi-ce#, _thither_, after #hūc#; #hōc#, commonly #hūc#, perhaps for #hoi-ce# (99) _hither_. #-im# denotes the ‘place from which:’ as, #istim#, commonly #istinc#, _from where you are_; #illim#, commonly #illinc#, _from yonder_; #hinc#, _hence_; #exim#, _thereupon_; also #-de#: as, #unde#, _whence_ (#quo-#, 146), #sī-cunde#, _if from any place_, #nē-cunde#, _lest from anywhere_. #-ter#: as comparative (347): #praeter#, _further_, _beyond_, #inter#, _between_; denoting manner: #ācriter#, _sharply_; #amanter#, _affectionately_; rarely from #-o-# stems: as, #firmiter#, _steadfastly_.

CORRELATIVE ADVERBS.

711. Adverbs derived from pronoun stems often correspond with each other in meaning and form; some of the commonest correlatives are the following:

Int. Interrogative Indef. Indefinite Dem., Det. Demonstrative, Determinative, &c. Rel. Relative.

II. SENTENCES AS ADVERBS.

712. Some adverbs are condensed sentences: as,

#īlicet#, _you may go, straightway_ (#īre licet#); #scīlicet#, _you may know, obviously, of course_ (#scīre licet#); #vidē̆licet#, _you can see, plainly_ (#vidēre licet#); #nūdiustertius#, _now is the third day, day before yesterday_ (#num dius#, i.e. #diēs#, #tertius#); #forsitan#, _maybe_ (#fors sit an#); #mīrum quantum#, _strange how much, astonishingly_; #nesciō quō pactō#, #nesciō quōmodo#, _somehow or other, unfortunately_.

(B.) INFLECTION OF THE VERB.

713. The verb is inflected by attaching person endings to the several stems.

THE STEM.

714. The stem contains the meaning of the verb, and also denotes the mode (mood) and the time (tense) of the action as viewed by the speaker.

715. There are three MOODS, _Indicative_, _Subjunctive_, and _Imperative_.

716. There are six TENSES in the indicative, three of the present system, _Present_, _Imperfect_, and _Future_; and three of the perfect system, _Perfect_, _Pluperfect_, and _Future Perfect_. The subjunctive lacks the futures; the imperative has only the present.

717. The meanings of the moods and tenses are best learnt from reading. No satisfactory translation can be given in the paradigms, especially of the subjunctive, which requires a variety of translations for its various uses.

718. The verb has two principal stems: I. The Present stem, which is the base of the present system; II. The Perfect stem, which is the base of the perfect active system.

719. The perfect system has no passive; its place is supplied by the perfect participle with a form of #sum#, _am_, or less frequently of #fuī#, _am become_.

720. Many verbs have only the present system: as, #maereō#, _mourn_; some have only the perfect system: as, #meminī#, _remember_. Some verbs have a present and perfect system made up of two separate roots or stems: as, present indicative #ferō#, _carry_, perfect indicative #tulī#, and perfect participle #lātus#; present #possum#, _can_, perfect #potuī#.

THE PERSON ENDING.

721. The person ending limits the meaning of the stem by pointing out the person of the subject. There are three PERSONS, the _First_, used of the speaker, the _Second_, of what is spoken to, and the _Third_, of what is spoken of. The person ending furthermore indicates number and voice.

722. There are two NUMBERS: the _Singular_, used of one, and the _Plural_, used of more than one.

723. There are two VOICES: the _Active_, indicating that the subject acts, and the _Passive_, indicating that the subject acts on himself, or more commonly is acted on by another.

724. Only transitive verbs have all persons of the passive. Intransitive verbs have in the passive only the third person singular, used impersonally; the participle in this construction is neuter.

725. Some verbs have only the passive person endings, but with a reflexive or an active meaning; such are called _Deponents_: see 798.

726. The person endings are as follows:

ACTIVE VOICE.

+------------------+---------------+--------------------------+ | _Mood._ | IND. & SUB. | IMPERATIVE. | +------------------+-------+-------+-------------+------------+ | _Number._ | SING. | PLUR. | SING. | PLUR. | +------------------+-------+-------+-------------+------------+ | _First person._ | -m | -mus | _not used_ | _not used_ | +------------------+-------+-------+-------------+------------+ | _Second person._ | -s | -tis | _none_, -tō | -te, -tōte | +------------------+-------+-------+-------------+------------+ | _Third person._ | -t | -nt | -tō | -ntō | +------------------+-------+-------+-------------+------------+

PASSIVE VOICE.

727. In the perfect indicative active, the second person singular ends in #-tī#, and the third person plural in #-runt# for an older #-ront#, or in #-re#. #-re# is most used in poetry and history, and by Cato and Sallust; #-runt# by Cicero, and almost always by Caesar.

728. In the indicative #-m# is not used in the present (except in #sum#, _am_, and #inquam#, _quoth I_), in the perfect or future perfect, or in the future in #-bō#. #-s# is not used in #es# for #ess#, _thou art_, and in #ēs#, _eatest_ (171, 1).

729. In inscriptions, #-d# sometimes stands for #-t# (149, 2) in the third person singular, and sometimes #-t# is not used: as, FECID, _made_, for _fēcit_; DEDE, _gave_, for #dedēt# or #dedit#. And other forms of the third person plural of the indicative active are sometimes used: as, Pisaurian DEDROT, DEDRO (with syncope, 111) for #dederunt#, _gave_; EMERV, _bought_, for #ēmērunt#; once DEDERI, probably for #dedēre# (856).

730. In the passive second person singular, Terence has always, Plautus commonly #-re#; later it is unusual in the present indicative, except in deponents; but in other tenses #-re# is preferred, especially in the future #-bere#, by Cicero, #-ris# by Livy and Tacitus. The second person plural passive is wanting; its place is supplied by a single participial form in #-minī#, which is used without reference to gender, for gender words and neuters alike (297).

731. Deponents have rarely #-mino#, in the imperative singular: as, second person, #prōgredimino#, _step forward thou_ (Plaut.); in laws, as third person: FRVIMINO, _let him enjoy_; or #-tō# and #-ntō# for #-tor# and #-ntor#: as, #ūtitō#, _let him use_; #ūtuntō#, _let them use_. In a real passive, #-ntō# is rare: as, CENSENTO, _let them be rated_.

NOUNS OF THE VERB.

732. The verb is accompanied by some nouns, which are conveniently, though not quite accurately, reckoned parts of the verb; they are:

Three Infinitives, _Present Active_ and _Passive_, and _Perfect Active_, sometimes called the _Infinitive Mood_. For the future active and passive and the perfect passive, compound forms are used.

The _Gerund_ and the _Gerundive_.

Two _Supines_.

Three Participles, _Present_ and _Future Active_, and _Perfect Passive_.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

733. The several verb stems can readily be found, when once the principal parts are known; these are given in the dictionary.

734. The PRINCIPAL PARTS of a verb are the _Present Indicative Active_, _Present Infinitive Active_, _Perfect Indicative Active_, and _Perfect Participle_: as,

PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. PERF. PART. regō, _rule_ regere rēxī rēctus laudō, _praise_ laudāre laudāvī laudātus moneō, _advise_ monēre monuī monitus audiō, _hear_ audīre audīvī auditus

735. The Principal Parts of deponents are the _Present Indicative_, _Present Infinitive_, and _Perfect Participle_: as,

PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. PART. queror, _complain_ querī questus mīror, _wonder_ mīrārī mīrātus vereor, _fear_ verērī veritus partior, _share_ partīrī partītus

DESIGNATION OF THE VERB.

736. A verb is usually named by the present indicative active first person singular: as, #regō#; #laudō#, #moneō#, #audiō#; or by the present infinitive active: as, #regere#; #laudāre#, #monēre#, #audīre#. Deponents are named by the corresponding passive forms: as, #queror#; #mīror#, #vereor#, #partior#; or #querī#; #mīrārī#, #verērī#, #partīrī#.

737. For convenience, verbs with #-ere# in the present infinitive active are called _Verbs in_ #-ere#; those with #-āre#, #-ēre#, or #-īre#, _Verbs in_ #-āre#, #-ēre#, or #-īre#, respectively. In like manner deponents are designated as _Verbs in_ #-ī#; or _Verbs in_ #-ārī#, #-ērī#, or #-īrī#, respectively.

THEME OF THE VERB.

738. The several stems of the verb come from a form called the _Theme_. In primitives, the theme is a root; in denominatives, the theme is a noun stem.

Thus, #reg-# in #reg-ō# is a root; while #vesti-# in #vesti-ō#, _dress_, is a noun stem. The noun stem is sometimes modified in form. Oftentimes the noun stem is only presumed: as, #audi-# in #audi-ō#.

739. Some verbs have a denominative theme in the present system, and a primitive theme in the perfect system, others have the reverse.

740. Most verbs with an infinitive of more than two syllables in #-āre#, #-ēre#, or #-īre#, or, if deponent, in #-ārī#, #-ērī#, or #-īrī#, are denominative; most other verbs are primitive.

Thus, #laudāre#, #monēre#, #audīre#; #mīrārī#, #verērī#, #partīrī#, are denominative; while #esse#, #dare#, (#dē#)#lēre#, #regere#, #querī#, are primitive. A few verbs, however, which have the appearance of denominatives, are thought to be primitive in their origin.

ARRANGEMENT OF THE VERB.

741. Verbs are divided into two classes, according to the form of the present system: I. Root verbs, and verbs in #-ere#, mostly primitive; II. Verbs in #-āre#, #-ēre#, or #-īre#, mostly denominative.

742. Verbs are sometimes arranged without regard to difference of kind, in the alphabetical order of the vowel before -s of the second person singular of the present indicative active, #ā#, #ē#, #i#, #ī#: thus, #laudās#, #monēs#, #regis#, #audīs#, sometimes called the _first_, _second_, _third_, and _fourth conjugation_ respectively.

I. PRIMITIVE VERBS.

743. A few of the oldest and commonest verbs of everyday life have a bare root as stem in the present indicative or in parts of it; and some of them have other peculiarities; such are called _Root Verbs_, or by some, _irregular_ (744-781). Most primitives are verbs in #-ere#, like #regō# (782).

(A.) ROOT VERBS.

_Irregular Verbs._

(_a._) WITH A PREVALENT BARE ROOT.

744. Primitives with the bare root as present indicative stem in almost all their forms are #sum#, _am_, #dō#, _give_, _put_, and compounds; and with the root doubled, #bibō#, _drink_, #serō#, _sow_, and #sistō#, _set_.

(1.) #sum#, _am_ (#es-#, #s-#).

745. #sum#, _am_, is used only in the present system (720). The perfect system is supplied by forms of #fuī# (#fu-#).