Book III, chap. 5, § 4.) For the position with regard to mines see the

same chapter, § 3.

[1175] In this case Stuart Mill seems to compare rent to a monopoly revenue: “A thing which is limited in quantity, even though its possessors do not act in concert, is still a monopolised article.” (_Ibid._, Book II, chap. 16, § 2.) The expression, though adopted by several other writers, is not quite accurate. In the case of a monopoly the owners fix the quantity which they will produce beforehand with a view to getting a maximum of profit. But this cannot apply to landowners. At any rate, if there is any monopoly it must be an incomplete one.

[1176] Stuart Mill, _Principles_, Book III, chap. 5, § 1.

[1177] Such was the argument employed by J. B. Say in the course of a controversy with Ricardo. “It is perfectly obvious that if the needs of society raise the price of corn to such a level as to permit of the cultivation of inferior lands which yield nothing beyond wages for the workmen and profits on the capital, then that demand on the part of society, coupled with the price which it can afford to pay for the corn, allows of a profit on the most fertile or best situated lands.” (_Traité_, 6th edition, p. 410.) Continuing, he remarks: “David Ricardo in the same chapter clearly shows that the profit from land is not the cause but the effect of the demand for corn, and the reasons which he adduces in support of this view may be turned against him to prove that other items in cost of production, notably the wages of labour, are not the cause but the effect of the current price of goods.” Ricardo himself seemed on the point of being converted to this view. See p. 554, note 2.

[1178] The theory of economic equilibrium enables us to give a still better demonstration of the general nature of this theory of rent. On this point we may refer to Pareto’s _Cours_ and Sensi’s _La Teoria della Rendita_ (Rome, 1912).

[1179] Cf. _supra_, p. 555, note 2.

[1180] Hermann, _Staatswirtschaftliche Untersuchungen_, Part V: _Vom Gewinn_. Even in the preface he declares that the doctrine of the rent of land must be regarded as a particular instance in the exposition of the law governing the returns from fixed capital in general.

[1181] Mangoldt, _Die Lehre vom Unternehmergewinn_ (Leipzig, 1855), pp. 109 _et seq._

[1182] _Die nationalökonomische Theorie der ausschliessenden Absatzverhältnisse_ (Tübingen)—a work in which he attempts a justification of rents in general and of the rent of land in particular. Rent he regards as the reward offered to anyone who knows how to utilise either his personal capacity or his capital or land in a way that is particularly advantageous to society. It supplies an allurement that acts as the source of all progress and of all economic activity, a sort of natural right of ownership which society spontaneously confers upon those individuals who know how to serve society, and which competition causes to disappear at the opportune moment. The rent of land can be justified on this ground wherever legislation has not made an abuse of it. This new claim on behalf of rent is very interesting, and those who regard rent as exclusively unearned increment may ponder over this new characteristic of unearned incomes.

[1183] P. 148.

[1184] “The sum paid for the use of land differs in no material respect from the sum paid for the use of other kinds of capital—a machine, for example. Although the land or the machine has to be returned to its rightful owner in the same condition as it was received, one ought to pay something just because such capitals are economically scarce; in other words, the amount existing at any one time or place is not greater than the demand. What differentiates land from machinery is that savings might easily be employed in turning out new machinery, but cannot very well increase the quantity of land in existence, or at any rate cannot transform existing soils in a manner that is profitable.” (Pareto, _Cours d’Économie politique_, vol. ii, § 759.) Marshall makes use of analogous terms: “If the supply of any factor of production is limited, and incapable of much increase by man’s effort in any given period of time, then the income to be derived from it is to be regarded as of the nature of rent rather than profits in inquiries as to the action of economic causes during that period; although for longer periods it may rightly be regarded as profits which are required to cover part of the expenses of production and which therefore directly enter into those expenses.” (_Principles_, 1st ed., Book VI, chap. 3, § 1.)

[1185] _Ibid._, Book VI, chap. 3, § 7.

[1186] Did space permit, this would be the place to refer to the latest glorification of the doctrine of rent, which is to be found in Clark’s _Distribution of Wealth_, published in 1899. In that work, upon the strength of which the author enjoys a well-deserved reputation, revenues of various kinds are successively treated as rents. Imagine a fixed amount of capital applied along with successive doses of labour: each new dose of labour will produce less than the preceding one, while the production of the last dose regulates the remuneration of all the rest. But the product of the preceding doses is greater than that of the last, and a surplus value will be produced which will represent the product of capital and which will be exactly analogous to rent. Or suppose, on the other hand, that the quantity of labour is fixed and applied along with successive doses of capital; the productivity of the latter will in this case go on decreasing, and since the revenue of each dose will be proportionate to its productivity, any surplus left over will be of the nature of rent due to labour. There are other ingenious discussions which cannot be referred to in a note of this kind. But in our opinion the theory of economic equilibrium affords a simpler explanation of distribution, and the kind of optimism to which Clark’s theory gives rise seems hardly justified. His attempt to combine the idea of marginal productivity with the law of diminishing returns is a further proof of the persistent influence exerted by Ricardian ideas upon English-speaking economists.

[1187] Proudhon, _Qu’est-ce que la Propriété_, p. 74.

[1188] Pollock, _The Land Laws_, p. 12.

[1189] _Agrarian Justice opposed to Agrarian Law and Agrarian Monopoly._

[1190] _The Theory of Human Progression and Natural Probability of a Reign of Justice._ For further information concerning Spence, Ogilvie, Dove, Paine, etc., see Escarra’s _Nationalisation du Sol et Socialisme_ (Paris, 1904). We have drawn upon his book for the views here put forward, the works of these writers not being easily accessible.

[1191] _Justice_, p. 92.

[1192] “The land is the original heritage of the whole human race,” says Mill in his _Dissertations and Discussions_. In the _Principles_, Book II, chap. 2, § 5, he expresses his views thus: “The essential principle of property being to assure to all persons what they have produced by their labour and accumulated by their abstinence, this principle cannot apply to what is not the produce of labour, the raw material of the earth.” Walras, in his _Théorie de la Propriété_, in the _Études d’Économie sociale_, p. 218, says that the land by a kind of natural right is the property of the State. Henry George, in _Progress and Poverty_, Book VII, chap. 1, maintains that “the equal right of all men to the use of the land is as clear as their equal right to breathe the air—it is a right proclaimed by the fact of their existence.”

[1193] _Principles_, Book V, chap. 2, § 5.

[1194] “This continual increase arising from the circumstances of the community and from nothing in which the landholders themselves have any peculiar share, does seem a fund no less peculiarly fitted for appropriation to the purposes of the State than the whole of the rent in a country where land has never been appropriated.” (_Elements of Political Economy_, chap. 4, § 5.)

[1195] _Cf. supra_, chapter on Saint-Simon.

[1196] _Principles_, Book V, chap. 2, § 5. Cf. also chap. 3, §§ 2 and 6. For the programme of the League see _Dissertations and Discussions_, vol. iv.

[1197] Mill thought it impossible to distinguish in individual cases between the surplus value which is due to general circumstances and the surplus that results from the expenditure undertaken by the proprietor. Hence his conclusion that a general tax was the most equitable method of procedure with a view to effecting confiscation.

[1198] _Dissertations and Discussions_, vol. iv, p. 256.

[1199] _Progress and Poverty_ was not his first effort, however. In 1871 _Our Land and Land Policy_ had appeared, and in 1874 _The Land Question_. Later still he published _Protection or Free Trade_ (1886), in which he puts forward a strong case for Free Trade, and in 1891 _An Open Letter to Pope Leo XIII_ on the condition of the workers.

[1200] Clark in his _Distribution of Wealth_ states that the method by which he tries to determine the exact productivity of each factor of production is one that he borrowed from Henry George.

[1201] “Twenty men working together will, where nature is niggardly, produce more than twenty times the wealth that one man can produce where nature is most bountiful.” _Cf._ also the whole of Book II, which is a disproof of the Malthusian theory.

[1202] “Labour and capital are but different forms of the same thing—human exertion. Capital is produced by labour; it is, in fact, but labour impressed upon matter.… The use of capital in production is, therefore, but a mode of labour.… Hence the principle that, under circumstances which permit free competition, operates to bring wages to a common standard and profits to a substantial equality—the principle that men will seek to gratify their desires with the least exertion—operates to establish and maintain this equilibrium between wages and interest.… And this relation fixed, it is evident that interest and wages must rise and fall together, and that interest cannot be increased without increasing wages, nor wages be lowered without depressing interest.” (_Progress and Poverty_, Book III, chap. 5.) It is hardly necessary to point out how very much simplified this doctrine concerning the relation between wages and interest really is.

[1203] A _résumé_ of this theory of distribution, whose very simplicity must make it suspect, may be found in Book V, chap. 2: “In every direction, the direct tendency of advancing civilisation is to increase the power of human labour to satisfy human desires—to extirpate poverty and to banish want and the fear of want.… But labour cannot reap the benefits which advancing civilisation thus brings, because they are intercepted. Land being necessary to labour, and being reduced to private ownership, every increase in the productive power of labour but increases rent—the price that labour must pay for the opportunity to utilise its power; and thus all the advantages gained by the march of progress go to the owners of land, and wages do not increase.” George, however, does not claim that real wages have fallen because technical improvements enable production to be carried on where it was formerly impossible. At most this will only enable capital and labour to preserve their old scale of remuneration; it will not give them any share in the progress that has been made, so that, relatively speaking, it is true to say that wages and interest have both fallen in comparison with rent. “When I say that wages fall as rent rises, I do not mean that the quantity of wealth obtained by labourers as wages is necessarily less, but that the proportion which it bears to the whole produce is necessarily less. The proportion may diminish while the quantity remains the same, or even increases.” (Book VI, chap. 6. Cf. also Book IV, chap. 3.) George, like Ricardo and a good many socialists, confuses two different problems, namely, the price of productive services and the proportional distribution of the product between the different agents of production (Book V). He adds, however, that scientific discovery, by pushing the margin of cultivation back to that point where the law of diminishing returns is more than counterbalanced by increased productive efficiency, may even sometimes reduce the worker’s real wages, and so impair his position not only relatively, but also absolutely. (Book IV, chap. 4.)

[1204] _Ibid._, Book V, chap. 2.

[1205] That portion of their revenue which represented the capital sunk in the land would still be the property of the landowners.

[1206] Mill points out that the answer to this objection is that the right of selling the land at a price which depends upon two contrary conditions (gain or loss) establishes a kind of equilibrium. The State would not lose anything by this, for a fall in value in one place, unless it be accompanied by a general want of prosperity, implies a corresponding increase somewhere else, of which the State will get the benefit. (_Dissertations and Discussions_, vol. iv.)

[1207] M. Einaudi, however, in his excellent _Studi sugli effetti delle imposte_, p. 125 (Turin, 1902), remarks that this principle of indemnifying losses leads directly to a State guarantee of values—the expediency of which is at least problematic. He makes the further observation that the compensation would often be paid to a person other than the one who paid the tax when it was levied—the property in the meantime having changed hands.

[1208] For the distinction between the legality of movable and immovable property see Mill, _Principles_, Book II, chap. 2, § 1, and Henry George, _Progress and Poverty_, Book VII, chap. 1. “The institution of private property,” says Mill in the above passage, “when limited to its essential elements, consists in the recognition, in each person, of a right to the exclusive disposal of what he or she have produced by their own efforts, or received either by gift or by fair agreement without force or fraud from those who produced it.” Such a definition at least implies that landed property is illegal. A house is distinguished from the land upon which it is built; whereas the former is legally held the latter is not.

[1209] Mill, _Dissertations and Discussions_, vol. iv, p. 298.

[1210] Especially in England, where various schemes have been propounded and investigated by Royal Commissions in the course of the last ten years. Such schemes are discussed in a very thorough fashion in Einaudi’s book already mentioned, and in an article entitled _Recent Schemes for Rating Urban Land Values_ contributed by Edgeworth to the _Economic Journal_ in 1906.

[1211] Article 30 of the Act of September 16, 1807, runs as follows: “If as the result of the improvements already mentioned in this Act—through the making of new roads or the laying out of new squares, through the construction of quays or other public works—any private property acquires a notable increase in value, such property shall be made to pay an indemnity which may be equal to half the value of the advantage which has thus accrued to it.” The principle was rarely applied, however. M. Berthélemy (_Traité élémentaire de Droit administratif_, 1908, p. 624) states that he can only find twenty occasions on which the law was brought into operation in the whole course of the nineteenth century.

[1212] Professor Seligman (_Essays in Taxation_, 5th ed., p. 341) quotes an English law of 1672 relating to the widening of certain streets in Westminster in which the principle is neatly stated. But when it was proposed to apply it to certain public works undertaken in London in 1890 it was energetically opposed. It was admitted afresh in the Tower Bridge Act of 1895. A similar system is frequently adopted in America under the name of “special assessment” or “betterment.”

[1213] No notice whatever was taken of it then, and even in the second edition of the great _Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften_, published in 1900, no mention is made of Gossen’s name, although the third edition of that work has made ample reparation. The book was reprinted in 1889. On the relation between the ideas of Gossen and those of Jevons and Walras see Walras’s interesting article, _Un Économiste inconnu, Hermann Henri Gossen_, published in the _Journal des Économistes_ in 1885 and reproduced in his _Études d’Économie sociale_, pp. 351 _et seq._

[1214] _Entwickelung der Gesetze_, p. 250.

[1215] Gossen sees other advantages that would follow such reform. He enumerates them thus: (1) The confiscation of rent would reduce the possibility of living without working, and this would increase the industrial activity of the class under consideration. (2) The legal transference of property would be greatly simplified. (3) Producers would be exempted from buying land and from keeping capital for this purpose. (4) Rent would take the place of taxation to a very considerable extent, and would free the collection of it from every trace of vexation or injustice. (_Ibid._, p. 273.)

[1216] Cf. the fragment entitled _Méthode de Conciliation ou de Synthèse_, in the _Études d’Économie sociale_. Henry George in his preface to _Progress and Poverty_ writes thus: “What I have done in this book … is to unite the truth perceived by the school of Smith and Ricardo to the truth perceived by the school of Proudhon and Lassalle; to show that _laissez-faire_ (in its full, true meaning) opens the way to a realisation of the noble dream of socialism.”

[1217] _Études d’Économie sociale_, p. 239.

[1218] See the charming sixth lesson of the _Théorie générale de la Société_ in the _Études d’Économie sociale_.

[1219] “In order to justify a measure involving a slight diminution in the rent of landed proprietors, it is hardly necessary to invoke the fact that rents have a faculty of growing continuously without the co-operation of the proprietor. We need scarcely point out that this increase in rent over a certain period cannot enter into the price of land simply because it cannot be calculated. Consequently, when a buyer buys under the system of guarantee afforded by the State he has at the same time undoubtedly bought a claim to all the variations of rent which may ensue.… Even if the landed proprietor is indemnified by being paid a perpetual rent equal to the rent of his land at the time of confiscation, as is done to-day in the case of compulsory purchase, the injustice will not be as great as it otherwise would be, but it will not be removed altogether.” (Gossen, _Entwickelung der Gesetze_, pp. 257-258.)

[1220] Gossen gives reasons for thinking that the State, owing to its superior position as compared with individuals, might offer better terms to the proprietors than ordinary buyers could—among others, that the State can borrow cheaply and could consequently offer a better price.

[1221] A similar idea underlies Gide’s proposal in an article contributed to the _Journal des Économistes_ for July 1883. “The State would offer to buy the land and pay for it on the basis of ninety-nine years’ purchase. There is reason to think that hardly a buyer would be found who would refuse such an offer coupled with a slight compensation, for ninety-nine years is the equivalent of perpetuity as far as the individual is concerned. There would be nothing mean about such a price; really it would be more of a gift to the proprietor.”

[1222] Walras, _Études d’Économie sociale_, p. 368. A mathematical discussion of the theory is contained in the _Théorie mathématique du Prix des Terres_. The same argument expressed in ordinary language may be found in the article entitled _Un Économiste inconnu_ (_Études d’Économie sociale_, pp. 365 _et seq._), and it is still more simply summed up in the _Problème fiscal_, pp. 446-449.

[1223] “The same considerations would apply in the case of mines, railways, monopolies of every kind, natural and otherwise, where the principle of free competition is in operation or where any surplus value exists.” (_Études d’Économie sociale_, p. 347, note. Cf. also pp. 237 _et seq._)

[1224] Cf. Escarra, _loc. cit._, p. 224. See also Laveleye, _Le Socialisme contemporain_, 8th ed., Appendix I.

[1225] Métin, _Le Socialisme en Angleterre_, p. 179 (1897).

[1226] “The possession of a piece of land frees the workman from dependence upon the masters, which is one cause of poverty. The worker who possesses land is free. He has always something he can turn his hand to when out of work.” Elsewhere: “If a certain quantity of land is given to the workers their wages will surely rise, for no one will work for another unless he can get more than he gets when working for himself.” (Quoted by Escarra, p. 224, note.) The same idea occurs in Henry George, but not as a part of the general argument.

[1227] If we had not decided against the inclusion of the Italian economists, this would have been the place to devote a few words to the writings of Achille Loria. No one excels him as a writer on political economy. An elaborate superstructure of great economic, political, social, and even religious significance has been built upon the foundation of free land, which at least denotes a powerful imagination. A _résumé_ of this thesis is contained in _La Terra ed il Sistema sociale_, translated for the _Revue d’Économie politique_ in 1892. We cannot examine Loria’s system here. Suffice it to say that in his _Costituzione economica odierna_ (1900) he demands that the law should recognise each man’s right to the land: either to a unit of land (_i.e._ a quantity of land such as would enable a man to live and set up as an independent producer) or, failing that, to a fraction of such a unit.

Such is the theoretical solution, but the practical suggestion is somewhat milder, a kind of territorial wage being suggested. Every master would be obliged to give to his workmen, in addition to a minimum wage, a certain amount of land at the end of a given number of years. If during that period the workman has been employed by several masters, each master should contribute in proportion to the length of time he has been in his service.

At the end of a certain period every worker would thus become a proprietor. These would thus be in the same position as their primitive ancestors were as far as natural economy is concerned, and would be able to join with the older proprietors in a kind of association of capital and labour on a footing of absolute equality, which Signor Loria thought would be a most fruitful type of organisation. During the intervening years a certain amount of pressure would have to be put upon the proprietors.

[1228] The Social Democratic Federation was founded by Hyndman in 1881. See Métin, _Le Socialisme en Angleterre_, chap. 6 (1897).

[1229] Bernard Shaw, _The Fabian Society, what it has done and how it has done it_ (1892; Fabian Tract, No. 41).

[1230] _Report on Fabian Policy_ (Fabian Tract, No. 70).

[1231] “For it was at this period that we contracted the invaluable habit of freely laughing at ourselves which has always distinguished us, and which has saved us from becoming hampered by the gushing enthusiasts who mistake their own emotions for public movements.” (Bernard Shaw, _loc. cit._)

[1232] _Report on Fabian Policy._

[1233] Socialism, as understood by the Fabian Society, means the organisation and conduct of the necessary industries of the country, and the appropriation of all forms of economic rent of land and capital by the nation as a whole, through the most suitable public authorities, municipal, provincial, or central. The socialism advocated by the Fabian Society is State socialism exclusively (the term is used to distinguish it from anarchist socialism). On the other hand, it “steadfastly discountenances all schemes for securing to any person, or any group of persons, the entire product of their labour. It recognises that wealth is social in its origin and must be social in its distribution, since the evolution of industry has made it impossible to distinguish the particular contribution that each person makes to the common product, or to ascertain its value.” (_Report on Fabian Policy._)

[1234] _Ibid._

[1235] In addition to the _Fabian Essays_, the principal publications containing an exposition of Fabian ideas are the Fabian Tracts, a collection containing a great number of pamphlets on various subjects; _The History of Trade Unionism_, by Mr. and Mrs. Webb; _Industrial Democracy_, particularly chaps. 1 and 2 of the third part, by the same authors; and, finally, _Problems of Modern Industry_ (1898), a collection of lectures and articles, also by Mr. and Mrs. Webb.

[1236] Mr. and Mrs. Webb in their _History of Trade Unionism_ reject “that confident sciolism and prejudice which has led generations of socialists to borrow from Adam Smith and the ‘classic’ economists the erroneous theory that labour is by itself the creator of value without going on to master that impregnable and more difficult law of economic rent which is the very corner-stone of collectivist economy.”

[1237] “The interest with which we are concerned must clearly be a definable quantity of produce.” (_The National Dividend and its Distribution_, in _Problems of Modern Industry_, p. 227. We are indebted to this article for the exposition which we have given of the Fabian doctrine.)

[1238] An exposition of the same theory is given in Tract No. 15, _English Progress towards Social Democracy_: “The individuals or classes who possess social power have at all times, consciously or unconsciously, made use of that power in such a way as to leave to the great majority of their fellows practically nothing beyond the means of subsistence according to the current local standard. The additional product, determined by the relative differences in productive efficiency of the different sites, soils, capitals, and forms of skill above the margin of cultivation, has gone to those exercising control over these valuable but scarce productive factors. This struggle to secure the surplus or ‘economic rent’ is the key to the confused history of European progress, and an underlying, unconscious motive of all revolutions.” Cf. also _The Difficulties of Individualism_, in _Problems of Modern Industry_, pp. 237-239.

[1239] Bernard Shaw in his _Economic Basis of Socialism_, published in the _Fabian Essays_, makes a very neat distinction between interest properly so called and economic rent.

[1240] _Fabian Essays_, p. 35.

[1241] _Socialism True and False_ (Tract No. 51).

[1242] _What Socialism is_ (Tract No. 13).

[1243] In his preface to Kurella’s German book, _Sozialismus in England_ (1898), he mentions the fact that the English working class is divided into a number of corporations who are either jealous of or misunderstand one another, but have not what we may properly call a class consciousness (p. 10).

[1244] _Report on Fabian Policy_, p. 7.

[1245] _Fabian Essays_, pp. 47-49.

[1246] _Ibid._, p. 31.

[1247] Sidney Webb, _The Difficulties of Individualism_, in _Problems of Modern Industry_, p. 231. Also in the _Fabian Essays_, p. 35, he declares: “Socialists as well as individualists realise that important organic changes can only be (1) democratic …; (2) gradual …; (3) not regarded as immoral by the mass of the people; and (4) in this country, at any rate, constitutional and peaceful.”

[1248] B. Potter (Mrs. Sidney Webb), _The Co-operative Movement_, p. 16.

[1249] Etymologically “solidarity” is a corruption of _solidum_, which was employed by the Roman jurists to signify the obligation incurred by debtors who were each held responsible for the whole amount of a debt. One would naturally expect the French derivative to be _solidité_, which was the term used by the jurists under the old _régime_, especially by Pothier. _Solidarité_ was substituted for it by the editors of the Civil Code.

[1250] We should never come to an end if we began to quote passages in which the merits of solidarity are set forth. We must content ourselves with the following, chosen at random:

M. Millerand, at the time Minister of Commerce, in a speech delivered at the opening of the Exposition Universelle in 1900, said: “Science teaches men the true secret of material greatness and of social morality; and all its teaching, in a word, points to solidarity.”

M. Deherme, the founder of the People’s University movement, says: “The folly of solidarity should be the source of our inspiration, just as the martyrs of old were inspired by the folly of the Cross. The thing that wants doing is to organise democracy.” (_La Co-operation des Idées_, June 16, 1900.)

[1251] “For as we have many members in one body, and all members have not the same office; so we, being many, are one body in Christ, and every one members one of another.” (Romans xii, 4 and 5.)

“As in physical organisms the unity is made up of separate limbs, so among reasoning things the reason is distributed among individuals constituted for unity of co-operation.” (Marcus Aurelius, vii, 13; Rendall’s translation.)

[1252] _Discours sur l’Esprit positif._ In the _Cours de Philosophie_ he frankly pays it this well-deserved compliment: “It is a truly capital idea, and thoroughly modern too.”

[1253] Social biology dates from the publication of Professor Schäffle’s great work _Bau und Leben des sozialen Körpers_ (1875-78); possibly from the publication of Rodbertus’s work—at any rate, Rodbertus accuses Schäffle of plagiarism. See also Spencer’s _Principles of Sociology_. Aristotle had already ventured to say that “an animal is just like a well-ordered city,” a proposition that might well be inverted.

[1254] There are still a few adherents left. See M. Worms’s book, _Organisme et Société_, and Lilienfeld’s _Pathologie sociale_.

Herbert Spencer, who was the pioneer of the analogy, had abandoned it; and Auguste Comte, the godfather of sociology, took good care to put sociologists on their guard against the method, which he considered irrational.

[1255] “The enormous development of steam communication and the spread of the telegraph over the whole globe have caused modern industry to develop from a gigantic starfish, any of whose members might be destroyed without affecting the rest, into a μέγα ζῶον which is convulsed in agony by a slight injury in one part.” (Nicholson, _Effects of Machinery on Wages_, p. 117.)

[1256] It was in 1889, if we mistake not, that the term “solidarity” was proposed as the title of a new economic school in a lecture entitled _L’École nouvelle_. This lecture was published, along with others, in a small volume entitled _Quatre Écoles d’Économie sociale_ (1890, Geneva) (_L’École libérale_, by Frédéric Passy; _L’École catholique_, by Claudio Jannet; _L’École socialiste_ by M. Stiegler; and _L’École nouvelle_, by M. Gide). The characteristics of the various schools are summed up as follows: The one is the school of liberty, the other of authority, while the third is the school of equality. Gide then proceeds: “Were I asked to define what I understand by the New School in a single word, I should call it the Solidarity School. Unlike liberty, equality, and fraternity, solidarity is not a very high-sounding word, nor is it a mere ideal. It is just a fact, one of the best-established facts of history and experience, and the most important discovery of our time, and this fact of solidarity is becoming better established every day.”

It would have been better, perhaps, to have spoken of a new movement rather than of a new school, seeing the variety of schools, some of them actually opposed to one another, such as the school of Biological Naturalism and the Christian school, the Anarchist school and the State Socialist school, that have adopted solidarity as a part of their creed.

[1257] M. Léon Bourgeois’s _La Solidarité_ appeared originally as a series of articles contributed to the _Nouvelle Revue_ in 1896. These were published in book form in the following year. The different aspects of the question have been dealt with in a series of lectures delivered by various authors at the École des Hautes Études sociales under the presidency of M. Bourgeois himself, and published in a volume entitled _Essai d’une Philosophie de la Solidarité_ (1902). An association for the propagation of the new ideas was founded in 1895 under the name of La Société d’Éducation sociale. An International Congress was called together on the occasion of the 1900 Exposition, but since then the signs of activity have been few.

French books and articles dealing with the subject are plentiful enough. We can only mention _La Solidarité sociale et ses Nouvelles Formules_, by M. d’Eichthal (1903); the annual report of L’Académie des Sciences morales et politiques for 1903; M. Bouglé’s book _Le Solidarisme_ (1907); and Fleurant’s _La Solidarité_ (1907). There is hardly a manual for teachers published which does not contain a chapter devoted to this question.

[1258] “The fact that such a thing as natural solidarity exists should not be taken to imply that it must necessarily be just. Justice can never be realised unless the laws of solidarity are first observed; but once these have been established, their effects must be modified to make them conform to the requirements of justice. The actual and the ideal should never be confused; they are the direct contraries of one another. But it is absolutely necessary that the first should be established before we can realise the moral necessity for the other.” (Bourgeois, _Philosophie de la Solidarité_, pp. 13, 17.)

[1259] “There are some debts which are hardly noticed at all, but which ought to be paid all the same.” (Bourgeois, _Philosophie de la Solidarité_, p. 60.) “There is a real claim where we thought there was only a moral obligation, and a debt where we thought there was only a sacrifice.” As the Gospel says: “Unto whomsoever much is given, of him shall be much required.” (Luke xii, 48.) “So that ye come behind in no gift.” (1 Corinthians i, 7.)

[1260] “No man is free as long as he is in debt. He becomes free the moment he pays off that debt. The doctrine of solidarity is just the corrective of the theories of private property and individual liberty.” (Bourgeois, _op. cit._, p. 45.)

[1261] M. Bourgeois also points out that just as our ancestors were indebted to us, so are we indebted to those that shall come after us. But that is a different thing, and the theory does not seem very sound on this point. It is strange to think that creditors long since dead should transfer the debt which was owing to them to the credit of generations yet unborn!

[1262] Bourgeois, _op. cit._, p. 94.

[1263] Even the texts of the Civil Code seem to point to some such theory. Article 1370, in addition to the cases of quasi-contract and quasi-misdemeanour of which it speaks, also mentions “law” as a general cause of obligation.

[1264] “Wherever it is impossible to fix definitely the value of the personal effort put forth by a single individual, as in the case of a quasi-contract—that is, whenever it is impossible to determine the value of the debt on the one hand or the credit on the other—_the best plan is to pool those risks and advantages_. This would mean that none would know who is really bearing the risk or who is reaping the advantages, the risks being shared by everybody and the advantages being thrown open to everyone.” (_Ibid._, p. 81.)

The end of the quotation apparently contradicts the statement we have italicised, in which he speaks of pooling risks and advantages. With regard to the latter, it is enough, apparently, to secure equal opportunity. It is not very obvious why the principle should be so rigidly enforced in the one case and so reluctantly in the other. If the principle of solidarity holds me responsible for the degradation of the drunkard in the one case, is there any reason why I should not be allowed to share in the good fortune of the lucky speculator in another? Is it because the logical application of this principle would directly lead to communism?

[1265] One should add that the word “quasi-contract” is not so frequently used by M. Bourgeois as it is by his disciples. As in many another instance, the disciples have outdone the master. In his _Philosophie de la Solidarité_ he scarcely uses the term at all, but seems to prefer to speak of mutualisation.

[1266] Such seems to be the ideal of Guyau, the philosopher, in his charming volume, _Esquisse d’une Morale sans Obligation ni Sanction_.

[1267] “The only thing that justice demands is the payment of debt; beyond that we have no right to impose any obligation whatsoever.” (Bourgeois, _op. cit._, pp. 45 and 56.)

[1268] “Thanks to this fact, rivals need not seek to eliminate one another, but may well be content to exist side by side. Specialisation is undertaken, our author thinks, not with the idea of producing more, as the economists seem to teach, but merely with a view to enabling us to exist under the new conditions of life which await us.” (_Division du Travail._)

[1269] “Every brook that flows, every lamp that burns, every word spoken, every gesture made, betokens a movement in the direction of the greater uniformity of the universe.” (Lalande, _La Dissolution_.)

[1270] This is the sense in which solidarity has been understood by the Lausanne philosopher Charles Secrétan, in his book _La Civilisation et la Croyance_, and the same point of view has been adopted by M. Alfred Fouillée. “Solidarity,” writes Fouillée, “has all the practical value of an ideal force. The recognition of the profound identity which pervades humanity and the adoption of an ideal of perfect unity as the supreme object of rational desire must assume the form of a duty in the eyes of every human being. We should anticipate the unity of the human race, which is as yet far from being realised, and which will never be perfect perhaps, by acting as if we were already one.” (_Revue des Deux Mondes_, July 15, 1901.)

[1271] Auguste Comte, in his usual authoritative manner, declared that solidarity rests upon the fact that men can represent one another, and consequently may be held responsible for one another.

[1272] See a collection of addresses by various authors published under the title of _Les Applications sociales de la Solidarité_ (1904).

[1273] These laws of public assistance are among the most remarkable practical manifestations of the solidarist movement. They are quite a new feature in French public life, and until their appearance relief, whether given by the State, the department, or the commune, was purely optional (except in a few isolated cases, such as in that of waifs and strays). To mention only the principal ones in France, the law of July 15, 1893, made relief in the form of medical attendance for all destitute invalids obligatory upon the communes. The law of July 14, 1905, extended a similar benefit to all invalids and to all persons over seventy years of age in the form of pensions varying in amount from 60 to 240 francs per annum (360 in Paris). Finally, the law of April 5, 1910, secures a pension to all workmen at the age of sixty, the charge being divided between the State, the employers, and the workmen themselves. It is a kind of payment made by the members of the present generation to the survivors of a past one. This relief is clearly of the nature of a social debt, and justifies us in treating it as the outcome of a quasi-contract, for on the one hand it constitutes an obligation fixed by law on the part of the commune, the department, or the State, as the case may be—an obligation which they cannot escape—and on the other hand a right on the part of the beneficiary, as in the case of a creditor in an action for the recovery of debt.

[1274] A very curious application of this national solidarity has come to light quite recently. Formerly the French Government would only sanction foreign loans if the borrowing country promised to apply some part of its funds to French industry. That meant linking the _rentier_ and the French manufacturers by a forced kind of solidarity, the first being unwilling to lend money unless that money in some way returned to the second person for goods purchased. This is just where the claim of the workers, who justly demand a minimum wage, comes in.

[1275] The doctrine of quasi-contract might lead to the one conclusion as well as to the other. M. Bourgeois himself seems to incline rather in the direction of associationism. “The Radical party has a social doctrine, a doctrine that might be summed up in one word—association.” (Preface to M. Buisson’s _La Politique radicale_.)

[1276] “The Apotheosis of Solidarity,” printed in large type, recently appeared as a headline in one of the French morning papers. The reference was to a banquet of 30,000 mutualists.

[1277] Mutualists are so taken up with the idea of solidarity that they indignantly protest if any of their number happens to make use of the term “beneficence” or “charity.” “Everyone has a right to demand his own,” they say: that is clearly Bourgeois’s thesis. On the other hand, their journal, _L’Avenir de la Mutualité_, for February 1909 claims that societies for mutual help have a right to organise tombolas and lotteries, and they base their care upon the law of May 21, 1836, which reserves the right of lottery to “efforts of an entirely charitable character.” In order to defend its claim, _L’Avenir de la Mutualité_ does not hesitate to affirm that the societies for mutual help “recognise the existence of an element of benevolence which is not exactly mutual and which is rightly connected with the superior modern principle of social solidarity, but which none the less justifies the application of the law of 1836.”

[1278] “Solidarity is just an empty word if it is not supported by special organisms which can render it effective. This is why workmen’s associations have deemed it necessary to establish what they call ‘guarantism.’…

“The most unmistakable manifestation of solidarity consists in the employment of a part of the wealth produced by labour in order to repair the poverty caused by the deficient organisation of labour, which leaves the worker and his family liable to the acutest suffering whenever illness, old age, or misfortune crosses their paths.” (Programme on the cover of a journal known as _L’Association ouvrière_, the organ of the producers’ associations.)

[1279] This co-operatist programme is generally known in France as that of the École de Nîmes. Really it is a development of the suggestions thrown out by the Rochdale Pioneers in 1844. M. Bourgeois, who gives it a place in his _Systèmes socialistes_, considers that it is a little indefinite. It seems to us, on the other hand, to be about as precise as any of the other socialist systems that attempt to envisage the future; and it has this advantage, that its prophecies are already in process of realisation in a fashion that is most unmistakable. See a brief _résumé_ of the programme in a lecture by Gide on the occasion of the centenary of the French Revolution, published in the volume entitled _Co-opération (Des Transformations que la Co-opération est appelée à réaliser dans l’Ordre économique)_.

The task of reorganising society belongs, not to the producers, but to the consumers, for while the former are inspired by the co-operative spirit, the latter are imbued with enthusiasm for the general well-being. Consumers have only to unite and all their wants are satisfied just in the way they desire, for they can either buy directly from the producers all that they need, or they can, when they have become sufficiently rich and powerful, produce for themselves in their own factories and on their own lands. This would mean the abolition of all profits, those of middlemen and manufacturers alike. The societies would retain only as much as would be necessary for the further extension of the movement, returning all the rest to the consumers in proportion to the amount of their purchases. We have already had occasion to note how this idea of the abolition of profits had haunted John Stuart Mill, and how it seemed linked with an entirely new phase of social evolution, to which he gave the name of the “stationary State.” We have also witnessed the Hedonists’ arrival at exactly the same conclusion, though along a directly opposite path, namely, that of absolutely free competition.

We must not lose sight of the fact that this revolution is accomplished without affecting the foundations of the social order—property, inheritance, interest, etc.—and without having recourse to any measure of expropriation save such as naturally results from the free play of present economic laws. Co-operators have no desire to interfere with accumulated capital, their aim being merely to form new capital which shall render the old useless. If existing capital is merely accumulated profits made out of labour, why should not labour itself make a profit, and this time keep it for its own use?

Complaints have been made that a system of this kind, even if it were realised, would not result in the abolition of the wage-earner, seeing that the workers would still be employed, the only difference being that their employer would be a society instead of an individual. The reply is that a person who works for a society of which he himself is a member is very near to being his own master.

Moreover, has anyone a right to raise this objection? The upholder of the present economic order certainly has not when we remember that he considers the wage contract to be the definite type of pure contract. Neither are the collectivists entitled to make it, for under their system everybody would be a civil servant. Hence the only persons who are really justified in making this criticism are those who believe that the future will see an increase in the number of independent proprietors. The reply that we would make to them is this: The only hope of seeing this realised—which is also the ideal of some co-operators—is to set up producers’ associations under the control and protection of consumers’ societies. In fact, a _régime_ of federated co-operative societies is not incompatible with the maintenance of a certain amount of autonomous production, thanks to various considerations which need not be detailed here.

[1280] In France this rule of solidarity has as yet only been adopted by a Catholic group of credit societies known as the Union Durand. It may be practised by a few other societies there, but it is quite obviously the exception, whereas in some German societies and in Italian and Swiss associations the rule is always followed—another proof that although the idea is French in origin we must look elsewhere for practical applications.

[1281] _La Propriété sociale et la Démocratie._

[1282] The result is that masters are nowadays held responsible whenever a workman meets with an accident, or falls ill even. They are also liable to damages whenever they pay off their men. Owners of urban property are no longer allowed to build according to their fancy, and any property set up in contravention of the sanitary regulations is immediately demolished. Further progress along these lines would lead to juridical socialism. See _Les Transformations du Droit civil_, by M. Charmont, and _Le Droit social et le Droit individuel_, by M. Duguit.

[1283] Anton Menger, of Vienna, is the protagonist of this view. See his book, _Das bürgerliche Recht und die besitzlosen Volksklassen_ (1890). Another of his works, _Das Recht auf den vollen Arbeitsertrag_, which has been translated into English and contains a valuable preface by Professor Foxwell Menger, maintains that at the basis of the economic order are three fundamental rights which may be compared with the political demands put forward in the Declaration of the Rights of Man. These rights are: (1) the right to the whole produce of labour, (2) the right to work, (3) the right to exist—all of which claims were put forward by Considérant, Louis Blanc, and Proudhon, the French socialists of 1848.

See also Lassalle’s book, _Das System der erworbenen Rechte_. Mention should also be made of M. Emmanuel Lévy de Lyon, who has published several articles of this kind, especially the pamphlet entitled _Capital et Travail_.

[1284] “The producer is concerned about the well-being of his clients at every moment. His sympathies are wide enough to include the whole of humanity. The merchant and the transport agent are always on the look-out for what will prove most advantageous to those for whom they are working, as well as for new clients—that is, for more persons to whom they can be of service.” These words, which might have been written by Bastiat, are taken from a small yet curious volume published by M. Yves Guyot, and entitled _La Morale de la Concurrence_.

[1285] “Solidarity serves as a pretext for those people who want to enjoy the fruits of the labour of others without taking a part in such labours themselves, and for politicians who want to win adherents to their cause; it is just a new name for an unhealthy kind of egoism.” (Vilfredo Pareto, _Le Péril socialiste_, in the _Journal des Économistes_, May 15, 1900.)

“The solidarist theories would simply greatly increase the number and incapacity of the unemployable.” (Demolins, _La Supériorité des Anglo-Saxons_.)

[1286] “The distinctive feature of evolution seems to be the growing tendency among organisms to attain to a position of independence by acquiring a certain degree of specialised skill.” (De Launay, _L’Histoire de la Terre_.) The crystal’s action, says de Launay, in grouping itself in the form of a polyhedron is an expression of independence as well as a means of defence. The crystal is simply the earliest individual to break away from its environment. The animal form in the ocean depths that carries in its own body the essentials of a new environment marks a second step.

[1287] “The primitive era was an age of solidarity. Crime was no individual thing then, and that the innocent should suffer for the sake of the guilty seemed a part of the order of things. It is only in an age of reflection that such dogmas appear absurd.” (Renan, _Avenir de la Science_, p. 307.)

[1288] Anti-kissing leagues, inspired not by any puritan motives, but arising solely out of fear of bacilli, have been formed in the United States. One must not be surprised if a league against hand-shaking is established next; although this would be rather a curious result of a doctrine of solidarity that is always represented by the device of two hands clasped in one another!

In Paul Bureau’s book _La Crise morale des Temps nouveaux_ there is a lengthy, lively criticism of solidarism from the moral standpoint.

[1289] This is how we find it appraised in _Le Mouvement socialiste_: “The development of solidarism is one of the most disquieting features of the present time. It affords a proof as well as being a cause of a considerable slackening of energy.” (Issue for July 1907; Paul Olivier in a review of Bouglé’s book on solidarism.)

[1290] Association, even when the object in view is purely mercenary, has a moral value superior to exchange:

(1) Inasmuch as it always implies, in addition to money payment, a certain sacrifice of time and trouble, perhaps even of independence. It involves something more than the obligation to attend meetings and to conform to rules.

(2) It implies something more than a mere act of exchange which is completed in an instant and at one stroke. It implies the indefinite collaboration of the parties concerned.

[1291] The solidarist _régime_ must be distinguished from the exchange _régime_ on the one hand and from charity on the other. Exchange implies giving something with a view to obtaining the exact equivalent. Charity, on the other hand, implies giving without expecting any return; hence it involves a sacrifice. Solidarity also implies a sacrifice: every appeal on behalf of solidarity is based upon the consciousness of a certain amount of sacrifice, but a sacrifice that is not entirely disinterested—it is the sacrifice of a part of the individual self in order to gain an equal share in the collective being.

[1292] See his article on Government in the _Dictionnaire_ of Coquelin and Guillaumin.

[1293] _Œuvres_, vol. i, p. 59 (_Fédéralisme, Socialisme, et Antithéologisme_).

[1294] Adler in his article _Anarchismus_ in the _Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften_, and in his _Geschichte des Sozialismus und Kommunismus_ (1899), shows the indebtedness of the anarchist ideal to Greek philosophy.

[1295] The work was republished in 1882 and again in 1893, and translated into French in 1902. There are also a few translations from the writings of Smith and Say from his pen. A very interesting account of his life, to which we must acknowledge our indebtedness for some of the information given here, is to be found in J.H. Mackay’s _Max Stirner, sein Leben und sein Werk_ (Berlin, 1898). Stirner’s real name was Kaspar Schmidt. Born in 1806 at Bayreuth, in Bavaria, he died at Berlin in extreme poverty and wretchedness in 1856. For an account of the “left Hegelian school” and of Stirner himself see the very interesting articles of Saint-René Taillandier published in the _Revue des Deux Mondes_, 1842-50.

[1296] Some may perhaps wonder why Nietzsche is not included, especially as he was a successor of Stirner’s. But Nietzsche’s interests were always exclusively philosophical and ethical. Stirner’s work, on the other hand, is mainly social and political. We have already pointed out that even Stirner’s book has only a rather remote connection with economics, and a detailed study of it would be more in keeping with a history of political ideas. Nietzsche’s work would lead us still farther afield, and would force us to examine every individualistic doctrine as it cropped up.

[1297] _Der Einzige und sein Eigenthum_ (ed. Reklam), p. 164.

[1298] _Ibid._, p. 225.

[1299] “This man has a body, and so has this man, and that man, right through society, so that you have a _collection of bodies_ and not one _collective body_. Society has several bodies at its disposal, but has no body of its own. Just like the parallel notion of a nation, this corporate body is a mere phantom—an idea with no corporeal existence.” (_Ibid._, p. 135.) To make the possession of a body the test of reality is surely gross materialism. At this rate, law, custom, and language would have to be considered unreal. A historical fact such as a battle or a revolution has no body, but its _real_ consequences are often palpable enough.

[1300] _Der Einzige und sein Eigenthum_, p. 222.

[1301] _Ibid._, p. 223.

[1302] _Ibid._, p. 164.

[1303] In a pamphlet called _Les Nouveaux Aspects du Socialisme_ (Paris, 1908), written by a syndicalist of the name of Berth, syndicalism and anarchism are contrasted, Proudhon’s emphasis upon the reality of society being adopted as the crucial test. Unfortunately, however, Berth confines his examination to Stirner’s system. Had he applied the test to Bakunin or Kropotkin he would have discovered that the emphasis laid by them upon the reality of society constitutes the most original feature in their theory. We are thus driven to the exactly opposite conclusion, and feel bound to admit—M. Berth notwithstanding—that anarchism and syndicalism in many respects closely resemble one another. Jean Grave, however, as we shall see later, seems more favourably inclined towards the naïve individualism of Stirner.

[1304] See Bakunin’s _Life_, written by his friend James Guillaume, included in the two-volume edition of his works; or the notice of him prefaced by Dragomanov to his volume _Michail Bakunin’s sozial-politischer Briefwechsel mit Herzen und Ogareff_ (Stuttgart, 1895). A fairly full biography—not yet published—has been written by Nettlau, and a copy of the MS. may be seen in the Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris. See also M. Lagardelle’s article on Bakunin in the _Revue politique et parlementaire_ (1909). Bakunin’s works have been published in French in four volumes, the first of which was issued in 1895, and the other three in 1907, 1908, and 1909 respectively (Paris, Stork). Some of his writings, however, are not included among these, _e.g._ the _Statutes of the International Alliance for Social Democracy_.

[1305] “I returned from that journey with very definite sociological theories in my mind which I have ever since cherished, and I have done everything I can to give them a more clear and a more concrete expression.” Kropotkin’s principal works are: _Paroles d’un Revolté_ (1884); _In Russian and French Prisons_ (1887); _La Conquéte du Pain_ (1888; Engl. trans. 1906); _The State, its Part in History_ (1898); _Fields, Factories, and Workshops_ (1899); _Memoirs of a Revolutionist_ (1900); _Mutual Aid_ (1902). He has also published a large number of pamphlets, among them _L’Anarchie: sa Philosophie, son Idéal_ (1896). Our quotations are taken from Eltzbacher’s _Der Anarchismus_, a work that consists almost entirely of quotations from the various anarchist authors, grouped under a few headings. [The references are to the French translation, 1902.—Tr.] These writers, and Kropotkin among them, have readily recognised the impartiality of the work.

[1306] Cf. _L’Évolution, la Révolution, et l’Idéal anarchique_, by Élisée Reclus (Paris, 1898), and _La Société future_, by Jean Grave (1895).

[1307] On the present position of anarchist ideas in France see R. de Marmande, _Les Forces révolutionnaires en France_, in the _Grande Revue_, August 10, 1911.

[1308] _L’Évolution, la Révolution, et l’Idéal anarchique_, p. 88; and he adds: “Our ideal implies the fullest and most absolute liberty of expression of opinion on all matters whatsoever. It further involves complete freedom to follow one’s own inclinations or to do as one likes” (p. 143), with this single proviso: “that the individual is thereby developing a healthy moral life” (p. 141).

[1309] Extract from _Carnets_, published in the _Figaro_, January 16, 1909.

[1310] _Œuvres_, vol. i, p. 281.

[1311] Jean Grave, _La Société future_, p. 157. Cf. also p. 199: “No individual must accept any restriction that will check his development, nor must he submit to the yoke of authority under any pretence whatsoever.”

[1312] _Justice dans la Révolution_, vol. i, p. 185.

[1313] Bakunin, _Œuvres_, vol. i, p. 105.

[1314] Quoted by Eltzbacher, _loc. cit._, p. 199.

[1315] Bakunin, _Œuvres_, vol. i, p. 281. “I can be really free when those around me, both men and women, are also free. The liberty of others, far from limiting or negating my own, is, on the contrary, its necessary condition and guarantee.”

[1316] _Ibid._, vol. i, p. 277.

[1317] The idea of respecting man’s humanity is vigorously criticised by Stirner. Proudhon is expressly mentioned as the chief representative of that view. The principle was also regarded with some favour by Feuerbach, who wanted to substitute emphasis upon the human in man for the stress generally laid upon the divine in his nature.

[1318] Proudhon is the model here. “To be governed,” says he (_Idée générale de la Révolution_) “is to have every deed of ours, every action and movement, noted, registered, reviewed, docketed, measured, filed, assessed, guaranteed, licensed, authorised, recommended, prohibited, checked, reformed, redressed, corrected; under pretence of public policy, to be taxed, dragooned, imprisoned, exploited, cajoled, forced, cheated, robbed; at the least sign of resistance or complaint to be repressed, convicted, vilified, vexed, hunted, mauled, murdered, stripped, garrotted, imprisoned, shot, slaughtered, judged, condemned, deported, sacrificed, sold, betrayed, and finally mocked, flouted, outraged and dishonoured. That is government, such its justification and morality.”

[1319] Bakunin, _Œuvres_, vol. i, pp. 143, 227, 151.

[1320] _Ibid._, vol. i, p. 228.

[1321] _Ibid._, vol. i, p. 176; vol. iii, p. 53.

[1322] _L’Évolution, la Révolution, et l’Idéal anarchiste_, p. 164.

[1323] Bakunin, _Œuvres_, vol. i, p. 280.

[1324] _Wealth of Nations_, vol. ii, p. 207. Cf. _supra_, p. 79, footnote. Adam Smith, it is true, did write that “civil government, so far as it is instituted for the security of property,” etc.; but that does not imply that the great economist regarded this as the only object of government, although it certainly is one of its chief aims.

[1325] “The million and one laws that govern humanity naturally fall into one or other of three categories: laws for the protection of property, of government, or of individuals. If we take these three divisions and analyse them we are inevitably forced to realise how futile and even injurious all legislation is.” (_Memoirs of a Revolutionist_, p. 236.)

[1326] “Society itself is every day creating beings imbued with anti-social feelings and incapable of leading honest, industrious lives.” (Kropotkin, quoted by Eltzbacher, _loc. cit._, p. 221.) “Seeing that the organisation of society is always and everywhere the one cause of all the crimes committed by men, its conduct in punishing criminals is clearly absurd or obviously insincere. Every punishment implies guilt, but the criminals in this case are never guilty. We deny the so-called right of society to bestow punishment in this arbitrary fashion. A human being is simply the unwilling product of the natural or social environment in which he was born and reared and under whose influence he still remains. The three great causes of human immorality are inequality, whether political, economic, or social; ignorance, which is its natural result; and slavery, its inevitable consequence.” (Bakunin, _Programme de l’Alliance internationale de la Démocratie socialiste_, in _Sozial-politischer Briefwechsel_, pp. 332-333.)

“Property and want are the great incentives to crime. But if defective society organisation is the cause of crime, an improvement in organisation should cause a disappearance of crime.” (Jean Grave, _La Société future_, pp. 137-138.)

[1327] “Is it necessary,” asks Bakunin, “to repeat the arguments of socialism, which are still unanswerable and which no _bourgeois_ economist has ever attempted to disprove? What are we to make of property and capital as they exist at the present moment? In both cases it practically means a right or a power guaranteed and protected by society to live without working; and since property and capital produce absolutely nothing unless fertilised by labour, it means power and the right to live upon the labour of others and to exploit the labour of those who have neither property nor capital and are compelled to sell their productive force to the fortunate owner of the one or other of these.” Cf. Kropotkin’s _Conquest of Bread_, p. 56: “Multiply examples, choose them where you will, consider the origin of all fortunes, large or small, whether arising out of commerce, finance, manufactures, or the land. Everywhere you will find that the wealth of the wealthy springs from the poverty of the poor.” In this sentence he sums up a long demonstration which he gives in proof of this contention.

[1328] Bakunin, _Œuvres_, vol. i, p. 324.

[1329] _Idée générale de la Révolution_, p. 119.

[1330] “Law is simply an instrument invented for the maintenance of exploitation and the domination of the idle rich over the toiling masses. Its sole mission is the perpetuation of exploitation.” (Kropotkin, _Memoirs of a Revolutionist_, p. 235.)

[1331] Bakunin, _Programme de l’Alliance_, in _Sozial-politischer Briefwechsel_, p. 339.

[1332] Kropotkin, _Conquest of Bread_, pp. 61-62.

[1333] “The anarchists want to see free unions established, resting upon mutual affection and based upon respect for one’s self and for the dignity of others. And in that sense, in their desire to show respect and affection for all the members of the association, they are inimical to the family,” (Élisée Reclus, _loc. cit._, pp. 145-146.)

[1334] _Der Einzige_, p. 229.

[1335] Cf. _Idée générale de la Révolution_, p. 281, and p. 342: “Revolution follows revelation. Reason aided by experience reveals to us the nature of the laws which govern society as well as nature, and which in both cases are simply the laws of necessity. They are neither made by man nor imposed by his authority. They have only been discovered step by step, which is a proof of their independent existence. By obeying them a man becomes just and noble. Violation of them constitutes injustice and sin. I can suggest no other motive for human actions.”

[1336] Bakunin, _Œuvres_, vol. iii, p. 51.

[1337] Bakunin, _Œuvres_, vol. iii, p. 55.

[1338] “In general we may say that man’s general life is almost entirely governed by what we call good sense.” (_Ibid._, vol. iii, p. 50.)

[1339] _Ibid._, vol. iii, p. 51.

[1340] _La Société future_, p. 303.

[1341] Bakunin, _Œuvres_, vol. i, pp. 286, 298, 277.

[1342] Bakunin on his death-bed confessed to his friend Reichel that “all his philosophy had been built upon a false foundation. All was vitiated because he had begun by taking man as an individual, whereas he is really a member of a collective whole” (quoted by Guillaume, _Œuvres_, preface to vol. ii, p. 60). In his _Philosophie du Progrès_ (_Œuvres_, vol. xx, pp. 36-38) Proudhon writes as follows: “All that reason knows and maintains is that the individual, like an idea, is really a group. All existence is in groups, and whatever forms a group also forms a unit, and consequently becomes perceptible and is then said to exist. In accordance with this general conception of being, I think it possible to prove the existence of positive reality and up to a certain point to demonstrate the laws of the social being or of the humanitarian group, and to establish a proof of the existence of an individuality superior to collective man and still quite other and different from his individual self.” The same idea frequently comes up in different connections, _e.g._, in the _Petit Catéchisme politique_ at the end of vol. i of _La Justice dans la Révolution_, and in _Idée générale de la Révolution_.

Kropotkin thinks that man has always lived in society of one kind or another. “As far back as we can go in the palæo-ethnology of mankind, we find men living in societies, in tribes similar to those of the highest mammals.” (_Mutual Aid_, p. 80). “Man did not create society; society is older than man.” (_The State, its Historic Rôle_, p. 6; London, 1898.) Jean Grave, on the other hand, thinks that “the individual was prior to society. Destroy the individual, and there will be nothing left of society. Let the association be dissolved and the individuals scattered, they will fare badly and will possibly return to savagery, their faculties will decay and not progress, but still they will continue to exist.” (_La Societé future_, pp. 160-162.) Grave’s view is essentially his own and does not square with those of either Kropotkin, Bakunin, or Proudhon, the real founders of anarchy. It is, moreover, quite obvious that their theories are really much nearer the truth, for it is as impossible to conceive of society without the individual as it is to conceive of the individual without society. The individual, as Bakunin emphatically declares, is a fiction, or an abstraction, as Walras would say. Many people find it difficult to accept this doctrine. But it seems the only one that tallies with the facts, whether of nature or of history. We can no more imagine the individual without society than we can a fish without water. Deprived of water, it is not only less of a fish, but it is no longer a fish at all—except a dead one.

[1343] Bastiat speaks of this error of confusing government and society as being the worst that has ever befallen the science. The State problem he defines as follows: “How to inscribe within the great circle which we call society that other circle called government.” Dunoyer in so many words expresses the same idea.

[1344] _Memoirs of a Revolutionist_, p. 414. Cf. also _Paroles d’une Révolté_, p. 221.

[1345] This idea finds frequent expression both with Reclus and Kropotkin. “The fact that we have instituted, regulated, codified, and encompassed with constraints and penalties, with gendarmes and jailers, the larger part of our more or less incoherent collection of political, religious, moral and social conceptions of to-day in order to enforce them upon the citizens of to-morrow is in itself sufficiently absurd, and it is bound to have contradictory results. Life, which is always improving and renewing itself, can never submit to regulations which have been drawn up in some period now past.” (Reclus, _loc. cit._, pp. 108-9.) “Anarchist society,” writes Kropotkin, “is one to which any pre-established, crystallised form of law will always be repugnant. It is also one which looks for harmony, which can only be temporary and fugitive perhaps, in the equilibrium between the mass of different forces and influences of every kind which pursue their course without the slightest deflection, and which because they are quite untrammelled beget reaction and arouse those activities which are favourable to them when they move in the direction of progress.” (_L’Anarchie_, pp. 17, 18.)

[1346] _Memoirs of a Revolutionist._

[1347] Proudhon had already set the problem as follows: “Can we find a method of transacting business that will unite divergent interests and identify individuals with the general well-being, replace the inequality of nature by equality of education, and remove all political and economic contradictions; when each individual will be at once both producer and consumer, citizen and sovereign, ruler and ruled; when liberty will always expand without involving any counter-loss; when the well being of each will grow indefinitely without involving any damage to the property, the labour, or the revenue of any of his fellow-citizens, or of the State itself, without weakening the interests he has in common with his fellow-men, without alienating their good opinion or destroying their affection for him?” (_Idée générale_, p. 145.) Says Jean Grave: “Were society established on natural bases, individual and general interests would never conflict.” (_Société future_, p. 156.)

[1348] _La Société future_, p. 16. “We cannot disguise the fact,” says Kropotkin, “that if complete liberty of thought and action were once given to the individual we should see some exaggerations, possibly extravagant exaggerations, of our principles.” (_Memoirs of a Revolutionist_, p. 413.)

[1349] “The only great and all-powerful authority at once rational and natural that we can respect is the public spirit of a collective society founded upon equality and solidarity, upon liberty and respect for the human qualities of all its members. It will be a thousand times more powerful than all your authorities, whether divine, theological, metaphysical, political, or juridical, whether instituted by Church or by State; more powerful than all your criminal codes, all your jailers and hangmen.” (Bakunin, _Œuvres_, vol. iii, p. 79.)

[1350] _Memoirs of a Revolutionist_, p. 414. This is also one of the favourite doctrines of the Liberals.

[1351] Kropotkin, _Conquest of Bread_, p. 206.

[1352] Grave, _op. cit._, p. 297. Proudhon is even more severe. “By making a contract you become a member of the fraternity of free men. In case of infringement, either on their side or on yours, you are responsible to one another, and the responsibility might even involve excommunication and death.” (_Idée générale_, p. 343.)

[1353] Kropotkin, _Mutual Aid_, p. 17.

[1354] “In our opinion, and speaking strictly, there is no such thing as a really idle person. There are a few individuals, perhaps, who have not developed as they might have done and whose activity has never found a proper outlet under existing conditions. In a society where everyone would be allowed to choose his own sphere of work the idlest people would be found doing something.” (J. Grave, _La Société future_, pp. 277-278.) Kropotkin writes in the same strain (_Conquest of Bread_, chapter on _Objections_).

[1355] Kropotkin, _Memoirs of a Revolutionist_, p. 414; _Conquest of Bread_, p. 156. The anarchists show no desire to expand the Phalanstère, but prefer the family life.

[1356] _Conquest of Bread_, p. 204.

[1357] _Conquest of Bread_, p. 130.

[1358] _Ibid._, p. 133.

[1359] Élisée Reclus, _L’Évolution_, etc., pp. 136-137.

[1360] _Conquest of Bread_, p. 83.

[1361] Cf. Grave, _La Société future_, ch. 14, _La Valeur_. The anarchists frequently complain that their ideas are generally mutilated by the economists. To read this chapter is to realise the amount of intelligence which they display when interpreting their adversaries’ doctrines!

[1362] _L’Évolution_, p. 154. Kropotkin says: “Those who wish the triumph of justice, who really want to put the new ideas into practice, understand the necessity for a terrible revolution which would sweep away this canker and revive the degenerate hearts with its invigorating rush, bringing back habits of devotion, of self-negation, and of heroism, without which society becomes vile, degraded, and rotten.” (_Paroles d’un Révolté,_ p. 280.)

[1363] Bakunin, in _Sozial-politischer_, p. 297.

[1364] _Memoirs of a Revolutionist_, p. 297.

[1365] Kropotkin, quoted by Eltzbacher, p. 236. “Revolution, once it becomes socialistic, will cease to be sanguinary and cruel. The people are not cruel. It is the privileged classes that are cruel. People are ordinarily kind and humane, and will suffer long rather than cause others any suffering.” (Bakunin, _Œuvres_, vol. iii, pp. 184-185.) The same idea runs through Sorel’s _Réflexions sur la Violence_.

[1366] Bakunin, _Sozial-politischer_, pp. 335 and 353.

[1367] _Sozial-politischer_, p. 361. The proclamation was addressed to Young Russia just after the Tsar Alexander II had accepted the challenge of Liberalism by emancipating the serfs. But he immediately proceeded to revive the cruel system of espionage and repression carried out by his father Nicholas I, and so roused the indignation of the more advanced leaders, who thought that they had in him a hero who would open the golden gates of liberty. Bakunin at the time was under the influence of an unscrupulous fanatic of the name of Netchaieff, whose savage and revolting passion for the execution of criminal deeds in the name of revolution had completely captivated him. Later on he vigorously reproved such acts, and declared that they ought to be suppressed.

[1368] _Ibid._

[1369] Bakunin, _Sozial-politischer_, p. 332.

[1370] _Réflexions sur la Violence_, p. 253.

[1371] _Paroles d’un Révolté_, pp. 17-18.

[1372] _Réflexions sur la Violence_, p. 218.

[1373] Berth, _Les Nouveaux Aspects du Socialisme_, p. 3.

[1374] _Réflexions sur la Violence_, introduction.

[1375] _Ibid._, p. 237.

INDEX

In the longer paragraphs a number standing alone, and separated by a semicolon from the preceding sentence, indicates a reference of smaller importance. Such numbers are, of course, not connected with the sentence preceding them.

“Abbots’ Party,” 508

Ability, rent of, 549-552, 582, 583

“Abstinence,” 350

“Abuse of rights,” 606

Act of Union of 1707, Adam Smith on, 266

Act of Union of 1800, 104

Adamson, Professor, 529 _n._

Adler, G., 615 _n._

Aftalion, A., 184 _n._

Agneta Park, 255

Agoult, Mme. d’, 292 _n._

Agriculture, the sole source of the “net product,” 12, 14; the Physiocratic influence upon the conception of, 17; the inherent distinction between industry and, 17-18; workers in, ignored by the Physiocrats, 22 _n._; Condillac on, 49 _n._; viewed by Quesnay as the source of all wealth, 56; Smith and the superior productivity of, 64, 90, 112; Smith’s admiration for, 67-68; Buchanan on, 143; the future of, 155-157; List and Protection and, 276 _and n._; Carey and Protection and, 283

Agriculturist, the, predominant importance of, in the Physiocratic hierarchy of classes, 61

Aix-la-Chapelle, 281 _n._

Alexander II, Tsar, 639 _n._

Algeria, 339 _n._

Allgemeiner deutscher Arbeiterverein, 432

Allix, M., 117 _n._, 207 _n._

_Alton Locke_, 504

America—_see_ United States

Anarchism, vii, xv; the development of, 516; a fusion of Liberal and socialist doctrines, 614; and the State, 615, 623-624, 625, 626, 627; Proudhon the father of, 615; indebtedness of, to Greek philosophy, 615 _n._; philosophical and literary anarchism, 615, 619; Stirner and the cult of the individual, 615-619; and syndicalism, 619 _n._; Bakunin, 619-620; Kropotkin, 621-622; the principles of social and political anarchism, 622-629; and the individual, 622-623; and humanity, 623; and government, 624-627; and property, 626-627; and marriage, 627; and free contract, 627-628; and reason and science, 628-629, 641; the anarchist conception of society, 629-636; criticism of the social ideal, 634-636; and revolution, 637-640, 641; its influence, 640-642; and individualism and socialism, 640; and syndicalism, 641; the moral element in the doctrine, 641

Anarchists, and the cult of the “noble savage,” 7

Anarchy, Proudhon and, 311 _n._

Anderson, J., 148 _n._-149 _n._

Andler, C., 321 _n._, 416 _n._, 435 _n._

Antoine, Father, 499 _n._

Antonelli, É., 251 _n._, 537 _n._

Argenson, Marquis d’, 11 _n._

Aristotle, 401; on value, 451 _n._; 590 _n._

Arkwright, R., 65

Ashley, W. J., v, vi, xi, 385 _n._, 387, 391 _n._, 406

Association, 231, 233; Robert Owen and, 237; Blanc and, 256, 257, 260, 263; Buchez and, 258; Leroux and, 263; Cabet and, 263-264; Proudhon and, 297 _and nn._, 315 _n._; 300; the French Liberal school and, 325; Stuart Mill and, 370; Le Play and, 491 _n._; the Christian Socialists and, 504-506, 507 _n._; Kingsley on, 505 _n._; solidarity and, 602, 613-614; and exchange, 613 _n._

Associative socialists, 227, 231-235; and the Physiocrats, 232-233; and competition, 233-234; Blanc and, 263

Auburtin, F., 487 _n._

Aucuy, M., 316 _n._

Aulard, F., 200 _n._

Aupetit, J. J., 529 _n._, 530 _n._, 537 _n._, 539 _n._, 543 _n._

Auspitz, Herr, 529 _n._

Austria, and the Zollverein, 268; Social Catholicism in, 499 _n._; anarchism in, 640

Austrian school, xv, 48, 397 _n._, 521, 522 _n._, 541, 544 _and n._, 581

_Avances foncières_, 22, 23 _n._, 25

_Avances souveraines_, 38 _n._

Avenel, M. d’, 546

Babeuf, F., 200 _and nn._, 256, 436 _n._

“Back to the land,” in Fourier’s system, 251-252; Tolstoy and, 513

Baden, 268 _n._

Baden, the Margrave of (Abbé Roubaud), and the Physiocrats, 4 _n._, 5; the Physiocratic experiment of, 44

Bakunin, M., 449 _n._, 459 _n._, 615, 616, 619-620, 621, 622, 623, 624, 626 _and nn._, 627, 628, 630, 631 _n._, 634 _n._, 637-640, 641

“Balance of trade” theory, Mercier de la Rivière on, 31; David Hume and, 53; Adam Smith and, 98; Ricardo and, 163-165; 285; List and, 285 _n._

Bank Act, English, of 1822, 166; of 1844, 166

Bank of Amsterdam, 85

Bank, Bonnard’s, 316 _n._-317 _n._

Bank of England, 166

Bank of Exchange—_see_ Exchange Bank

Bank of France, 305, 311, 312, 314, 638

Bank-notes, Adam Smith and, 85, 96; Ricardo and, 165-167; and Proudhon’s exchange notes, 311-312

Banks, Adam Smith and, 85, 96; Ricardo and, 138, 139 _n._, 163, 167; in the Saint-Simonians’ system, 218-219 _and n._, 226; Fourier’s co-operative, 251 _n._; influence on crises in the money market, 285 _n._; Count Mollien and, 314; the Raiffeisen agricultural credit banks, 503 _n._

Barone, Signor M., 529 _n._

Barrès, A. M., 254 _n._

Bastiat, F., xv, 92, 93, 115, 117, 118 _n._, 146 _n._, 156, 160, 163 _n._, 223 _n._, 277 _n._; and the Classical school, 322; and Protection, 323, 328 _n._, 329; 324; and liberty, 324 _n._; and State intervention, 325 _n._, 408-409; and the Liberal school, 327; Carey and, 327-328; his career, 328 _n._; and socialism, 328 _n._, 329; criticism of, 329; estimate of his work, 329 _and n._; and individualism, 330; his theory of universal harmony, 330-346; and the Providential order, 331; his theory of service-value, 332-335; and Proudhon, 333 _n._-334 _n._; his law of free utility, 335-337; and the proprietor, 336; and rent, 337-340, 425, 545, 546; and the relation of profits to wages, 340-342, 427; on the subordination of producer to consumer, 342-343; and solidarity, 344-345; 363 _n._; and international exchange, 365; and Optimism, 377; and the State, 438 _n._, 439; 459 _n._, 516, 572, 589; his fable, _The Blind and the Paralytic_, 608; 617, 624; and government and society, 631 _n._

Baudeau, the Abbé, on the Physiocrats, 3 _n._; a member of the Physiocratic school, 4 _n._; on the “natural order,” 10; on the productivity of agriculture, 13 _n._; on industry and commerce, 13; on the _Tableau économique_, 18 _n._, 20 _n._; on the dependence of the productive classes on the landed proprietors, 22 _n._; on the landed proprietors as nobility, 22 _n._; and the origin and justification of private property, 22; on the _avances foncières_, 23 _n._, 25 _n._; on the duties of landed proprietors, 25; on the regard to be paid to the peasants, 26; on useless laws, 33 _n._; on the Greek states, 34 _n._; on the sovereignty of the people, 36 _n._; on the supreme will, 36 _n._; on education, 37; on international antagonism, 37 _n._; on the three errors of States, 37 _n._-38 _n._; on _avances souveraines_, 38 _n._; on the revenue from land, 40 _n._; on the sovereign, 41 _n._; on the gross and net revenue, 43 _n._; 118 _n._

Bauer, Bruno, 616

Bauer, Professor S., 19 _nn._

Bavaria, Tariff Union between Würtemberg and, 268

Bazard, St. A., 201 _n._, 211, 212, 213

Bebel, F. A., 437

Bentham, J., 96 _n._, 586

Béranger, J. P. de, 331

Berens, E., 547 _n._

Bergson, H., 403 _n._

Bernstein, E., 473, 474 _n._, 475 _and n._, 479, 480 _n._

Berth, É., 479 _n._, 619 _n._, 642 _n._

Berthélemy, H., 569 _n._

Biological method, 544 _n._

Biological Naturalism, the school of, 593 _n._

Bismarck, Prince, and Lassalle, 414; 436; and State Socialism, 445

Blanc, Louis, 169, 198, 227, 235; quality of his work, 255-256; and competition, 256-257, 260; and association, 257-261, 263; and interest, 259-260; a pioneer of State Socialism, 261, 262, 414; and State intervention, 262, 414; 290; Proudhon and, 296 _n._; 300; and the Revolution of 1848, 300-306; Lassalle and, 434; 599, 607 _n._

Blanqui, A., 197, 295

_Blind and the Paralytic, The_, Bastiat’s fable, 608

Block, M., 375

Böhm-Bawerk, E. von, on capital, 71 _n._; on Adam Smith’s conception of the determinant of value, 78 _n._-79 _n._; 150; and Bastiat, 329; 474 _n._, 516; on the Classical school, 518 _n._; on wages, 520; 522 _n._; on final utility, 523 _n._; his theory of interest, 530, 540; 541 _n._, 583

Boisguillebert, P., 29 _n._, 33 _n._, 54

_Bon prix_, the, 15-16, 29, 45

Bonar, J., 52 _n._, 121

Bonnard’s Bank, 316 _n._-317 _n._

Booth, C., 388

Bortkevitch, V., 529 _n._

Bouglé, C., 594 _n._

Bourgeois, L., 593-599, 603 _nn._, 605 _n._

Bourgin, H., 201 _n._, 246 _n._, 265 _n._

Bourguin, M., 231 _n._, 320 _n._, 449 _n._

Bournville, 255, 513 _n._

Bouvier, M., 538 _n._

Boyve, M. de, 508 _n._

Brandes, G., 432 _n._

Brants, V., xi

Braun, K., 368

Bray, J. F., 315, 316

“Brazen law of wages,” the, 361, 426, 433, 453 _n._, 541

Brentano, L., 386, 389 _n._

Briand, M., 251 _n._

Bright, John, 366

Brissot de Warville, J. P., 200 _n._, 292 _n._

Brodnitz, Herr, 445 _n._

Brook Farm, 255 _n._

Brunetière, F., 485 _n._

Brunhes, Mme., 510 _n._

Brunswick, 268 _n._

Buccleuch, Duke of, and Adam Smith, 51 _n._

Buchanan, J., 52 _n._, 143

Bücher, K., 252 _n._, 271 _n._, 386, 397

Bucher, L., 414

Buchez, P., 258, 259, 306, 496 _and n._, 505

Buffon, the Comte de, 121, 523 _n._

Buisson, M., 249 _n._, 603 _n._

Buonarotti, F., 256 _and n._

Bureau, P., 493 _n._, 495 _n._

Buret, A. E., 197

Burgin, M., 95 _n._

Cabet, É., 233, 235, 246, 263-264, 290, 296 _n._, 297

Cairnes, J. E., 329, 374-375, 387

Calvin, John, 503 _n._

Cameralists, 110, 383

Campanella, T., 200 _n._, 246

Cannan, Dr. E., v, 52 _n._, 56 _n._, 71 _n._, 79 _n._, 145 _and n._, 427 _n._, 549 _n._

Canonists, the, 110

Cantillon, R., 46

Capital, Adam Smith and, 56, 71-73, 89-91; Ricardo and the identification of, with labour, 149-150; the law of the concentration of, 187; Saint-Simon and, 206, 214; the Saint-Simonians and, 214; Proudhon and, 293, 308-309, 310, 313-314; Bastiat and, 340-342; Colson and, 342 _n._; Dunoyer on, 347 _n._; Senior and, 350; Marx and, 455-465; Marx’s law of the concentration of, 459-465, 475-476; the socialist’s conception of, 459-460; the Marxian school and, 467 _n._; the productivity theory of, 502; final utility and, 528; the rent of, 548-549 _n._, 558 _n._; the rent of fixed, 556, 583; Henry George on the relation of labour to, 564-565; co-operators and, 605 _n._

Capitalism, Marx and, 461-462

Carey, H. C., and trade, 28; and rent, 115, 338-340, 425, 545, 546; 156, 278; and Protection, 282-284; and Free Trade, 282-283; and List, 284; 289 _n._; and the Optimistic school, 327; and Bastiat, 327-328, 340; and the Ricardian theory of value, 332; 333 _n._; and Bastiat’s profits theory, 342 _n._; and solidarity, 345; his population theory, 346; 549, 572

Carey, M., 278

Carlyle, T., 196, 511, 512 _n._

Carnot, H., 212, 213 _n._

Carnot, S., 367 _n._

Carrel, A., 212

Cartwright, E., 65

Carver, J. N., 522 _n._

Catherine, Empress of Russia, and the Physiocrats, 5; and Mercier de la Rivière, 34

Catholic Church, Roman, 485

Catholic Socialism, 495

Catholicism, and the economic order, 483 _n._, 484 _n._; Social Catholicism, 495-503

Cauwès, P., 285 _n._

Cazamian, L., 510 _n._

Chambre consultative des Associations de Production, 257 _n._

Channing, W. E., 255 _n._, 504 _n._

Chapelier, Le, decree of, 233 _n._

Chaptal, J. A., 112, 277 _n._, 278 _n._, 281 _n._

Charity, solidarism distinguished from, 614 _n._

Charléty, S., 226 _n._

Charmont, M., 607 _n._

Charter of 1814, 205

Chartist movement, the, 235

Chatelain, M., 50 _n._, 369 _n._, 415 _n._, 427 _n._

Cherbuliez, A. É., 376, 541 _n._

Chevalier, M., 212, 213, 226, 289 _n._, 366, 375, 411-412, 444

Child, Sir J., 54

Chrematistic school, 178-179

Christian Social Union, 506 _n._

Christian Socialism (Social Protestantism), xv, 378, 495, 503-509; origin of the movement, 503-504; and association, 504-506; and moral reform, 505, 509; and private property, 506; the movement in America, 506; in Germany and in Switzerland, 507; in France, 508; and solidarity, 508; and individualism, 509

Christian Socialists, 111, 196, 370, 483; and socialism, 483-485; and Classical Liberalism, 484; and the “natural order,” 484; and Marx’s collectivism, 485; and State Socialism, 485; their doctrines, and their influence, 486; and economic theory, 515

Christianity, economic doctrines inspired by, 483-514

Christliche Gewerkvereine, 501

Civitas Solis, 246

Clark, J. B., 522 _n._, 527, 542 _n._, 552, 564 _n._

“Class war,” 465 _n._, 471, 478, 479, 481-482

Classical school, doctrine of, xv; the Physiocratic doctrine and, 10; List and, 169; and the critical school, 170; Sismondi and, 174, 177, 179, 195-196; and machinery, 180, 182; and over-production, 181; resemblance of doctrines of, to those of Marx, 181; and competition, 182; and the beneficence of the spontaneous economic forces, 230; and Free Trade, 264; List and, 289, 290; severance of, into English and French schools, 322; apogee and decline of, 348-376; Senior and, 349-350; spread of the doctrines of, 351-352; Stuart Mill and, 352, 353, 354, 368, 374; and natural laws, 354-366; called the Individualist school, 355; and individualism, 355-356; and liberty, 356; definition of, 356 _n._, 357 _n._; and _laissez-faire_, 357; and international exchange, 363; doctrines of, in the middle of the nineteenth century, 366-367; and peasant proprietorship, 371 _n._; decline of the Classical doctrine, 378; Roscher and Hildebrand and, 383-385; Knies and, 384; the Historical school’s criticism of, 385, 389-398, 517; and self-interest, 393-394; and the deductive method, 395-396; 407; Hermann and, 410-411; and distribution, 422; State Socialism and, 438; and Marxism, 467, 472; Carlyle and, 511; the Hedonists and, 518-521, 539, 541 _n._, 544; and rent, 520, 547; and price, 520; and value, 530 _n._, 558

Clavières, É., 107

Cobden, R., 280, 323, 328 _n._, 360, 366, 375

Colbert, J. B., 11 _n._, 280

Colbertian system, Physiocracy antagonistic to, 29; and agriculture and industry, 30 _n._; 97, 178

Colins, Baron, 155, 560

Collectivism, xv; the Saint-Simonians and, 201, 202, 211, 218-221, 231; of Marx, 250, 459 _n._, 485; development of, 378; origin of the term, 459 _n._; and property, 464 _and n._; and Christian Socialism, 509; the working-class ideal, 516, 579; the Fabian, 581; Kropotkin and, 627

Collinsists, 465 _n._

Colson, L. C., 342 _n._, 427 _n._, 537 _n._

Combination Laws, 361

Commerce, regarded as unproductive by the Physiocrats, 13

Communism, Sismondi and, 194; Marx and, 221, 459 _n._, 464; Cabet and, 264; Proudhon and, 298, 300; Bastiat and, 337; Stuart Mill and, 353, 367; Ruskin and, 513; Tolstoy and, 513; Kropotkin and, 627

Communists, the, Proudhon and, 296 _and n._

Competition, Sismondi and, 182-184, 186, 193 _n._, 198; Adam Smith and, 182; the Associationists and, 233-234; Robert Owen and, 240; Blanc and, 256-257, 260; Ollivier on, 325; Stuart Mill on, 353, 358; free, the Classical school and, 358, 544; Cairnes and, 375; the State Socialists and, 440; F. D. Maurice and, 504 _n._; free, the Hedonists and, 518, 541-542, 605 _n._; free, Walras and, 541-542; 543

Composite rent, 552

_Comptabilisme sociale_, 242

Comte, A., 36 _n._, 201 _n._, 203 _and n._, 211; and Saint-Simon, 222; and the spontaneity of the “natural order,” 331; 335, 352, 367, 374 _n._; and the Historical method, 404-405; and the equality of men, 486 _n._; and solidarity, 589, 601 _n._; and the sociological analogy, 590 _n._; 595

Comte, C., 207

Condé-sur-Vesgres, Fourier colony at, 255 _n._

Condillac, É. B. de, xiii, 46, 47, 48-50, 74, 75, 109 _and n._, 117, 118 _n._, 523 _n._

Condorcet, M. C., 122, 224

Confédération général du Travail, 480, 502, 640

Congress of Catholic Circles, 498 _n._

Considérant, V., 234 _n._, 255, 264, 296 _n._, 301, 303, 304, 599, 607 _n._

Consumer, Bastiat and the subordination of producer to, 342-343

Consumer’s rent, 527 _n._

Consumers and social reorganisation, 605 _n._

Consumption, the Psychological school and, 526-527; the Mathematical school and, 530

Continental Blockade, the, 266, 279

Cooper, W., 244

Co-operation, Fourier and Owen and, 234, 257; in Fourier’s Phalanstère, 246-252, 257; Blanc and, 257-263, 306; Buchez and, 258; Proudhon and, 315; Stuart Mill and, 353, 370; the Social Catholics and, 496-500; F. D. Maurice and, 504 _n._; the Christian Socialists and, 505, 506; Tomy Fallot and, 508 _n._; solidarity and, 588, 604; the École de Nîmes and, 605 _n._; co-operators and capital, 605 _n._

Co-operative societies, beginnings of, 243; Robert Owen and, 243-244, 504; character of, 250 _n._, 504-505

Co-partnership, 251 _n._

Corn, high price of, in England, in the early nineteenth century, 145-146

Corn Laws, English, Sismondi and, 175; 269, 277, 280, 354, 361, 366

Corporative associations, the Social Catholics and, 496-500, 501 _and n._

Cossa, L., xi, 367, 376

Cost of production theory, Adam Smith’s, 78-79, 80

Courcelle-Seneuil, J. G., 118 _n._, 316 _n._, 317 _n._, 375, 541 _n._

Cournot, A., x, 265 _n._, 349, 360 _n._, 412-413, 420 _n._, 444, 519, 520, 529 _n._, 531 _nn._

Coux, de, 483 _n._

Credit, Enfantin on, 213 _n._, 226 _n._; the Saint-Simonians and, 226; Proudhon and, 313 _n._, 314

Crémieux, H. J., 303

Crises, J. B. Say and, 115-117; industrial, in England, 172; Sismondi and, 173, 190-192, 426; Robert Owen and, 239; Rodbertus and, 426; Marx and, 462-463, 478-479; Henry George and, 566

Croce, B., 474 _n._

Crompton, S., 65

Cunningham, W., v, vi, 387

Curmond, M., 13 _n._

Darimon, A., 316 _n._

Darwin, Charles, his debt to Malthus, 121; the French Liberal school and his doctrine of the survival of the fittest, 326; Kidd and the Darwinian theory, 485 _n._; Kropotkin and, 621

Dechesne, M., 498 _n._

Declaration of the Rights of Man, 233

Deductive method, the, 387, 395-398

Deherme, G., 587 _n._

Demand and supply, Adam Smith and, 73-74, 80-85, 89; the law of, of the Classical school, 359-360; the Hedonists and, 519-520

Demand, price and, 519-520

Demography, 121, 645

Demolins, E., 494 _and n._, 495, 608 _n._

Denis, Professor H., xi; on Physiocracy, 2 _n._, 8 _n._; on the _Tableau économique_, 19 _and n._; 140 _n._, 141 _n._, 164 _n._, 184 _n._, 404

Denis, M., 242 _n._

Descartes, 629

Deschamps, M., x _n._, xi _n._

Despotism, the Physiocrats and, 35-37

Destutt de Tracy, 118 _n._

_Dictionnaire d’Économie politique_, 354, 358

Diehl, K., 317 _n._

Differential rents, 546-558

Discount, in Proudhon’s Exchange Bank scheme, 310 _n._, 313; normal, 312

Distribution, the Physiocrats and, 18, 21, 113, 114; Adam Smith and, 55, 80, 93, 113, 114, 228; J. B. Say and, 93, 113-114, 228; Ricardo and, 114, 139-140, 162-163, 228; Sismondi and, 177-178, 185, 186, 198; the Saint-Simonians and, 229; Fourier and, 245; Vidal and, 259; Stuart Mill and, 368, 369; Rodbertus and, 421-429, 430-431; State Socialism and, 443-444; the Hedonists and, 527, 529-530, 541; Henry George and, 565 _n._-566 _n._; Mr. and Mrs. Webb and, 583; the anarchists and, 636; development of the theory, 645

Distributive societies, 604

Dolléans, É., 236 _n._, 239 _n._, 244 _n._

Dollfus, J. H., 490

Doubleday, T., 137 _n._

Dove, P. E., 560 _and n._

Dragomanov, M. P., 619 _n._

Drôme, M. de la, 303

Droz, N., 197 _and n._

Drysdale, Dr., 134 _n._

Dubois, J. B., xi

Duguit, L., 607 _n._

Dühring, E., 117, 208 _n._, 289 _n._, 420 _n._

Dumas, G., 202 _n._

Dumont, M., 137

Dumoulin, C., 503 _n._

Dumping, 275

Dunoyer, C., 207, 325 _n._, 326 _n._, 327, 346-348 _and n._, 363, 439, 614-615, 631 _n._

Dupin, C., 277

Dupont de Nemours, P. S., on Quesnay’s “rural economy,” 2; as a member of the Physiocratic school, 3 _n._-4 _n._; originator of the term “Physiocracy,” 4 _n._; his definition of Physiocracy, 5; on natural society, 6 _n._; on the “natural order,” 7 _n._, 8 _n._, 9 _n._; on the “net product,” 12 _n._; on the productive and non-productive classes, 14 _n._; on the need for the security of property, 24 _n._; on representation in the State, and on the parliamentary _régime_, 34 _n._; on despotism, 35 _n._; on the duty of the sovereign, 37; on taxation, 38 _n._, 40 _n._; on the landowner, 39 _and n._; on the relation of expenditure to production, 41 _n._-42 _n._; on regulating national expenditure, 44 _n._; on the amount of the tax, 44 _n._; and “proportionality,” 45 _n._; on natural law, 354 _n._

Dupont-White, C., 221, 304; on the State, 408 _n._, 409, 440, 441; on the State and the individual, 440; and individualism, 443 _n._; and distribution, 443-444

Dupuit, A. J., 521 _n._, 531 _n._

Durand Union, 606 _n._

Durkheim, É., 61, 388 _n._; and solidarity, 599-600

Duverger, 213

East India Company, 96

École de Nîmes, 605 _n._

“Economic chivalry,” 335

Economic equilibrium, theory of, 474, 521 _n._, 555 _n._, 558 _n._

Economic forces, Proudhon and, 296-297, 315

“Economic law,” 69, 70

Economic liberty, Adam Smith and, 93-98; the consummation of, 326-327

“Economic rent,” 582 _n._, 583 _n._

Economics, Senior and, 349-350; Stuart Mill’s influence upon, 367; theory of the universality of the laws of, 390; relativity of the laws of, 390-395; the deductive method in, 395-398; the Historical school and, 398-407; the varied scope of, 399; environment a principal factor in, 400; the place of history in, 400-407; and statistics, 407 _n._; as a science, 543 _n._, 644; the separation between pure and descriptive, 645

Economics, pure, 392-393, 515, 517, 541 _and n._, 645

_Economie sociale_, 178

“Economistes,” 4 _n._

Eden, Lord, 105 _n._

Eden, Treaty of, 105, 269

Edgeworth, Maria, 119 _n._

Edgeworth, Professor, 529 _n._, 536 _n._

Education, Adam Smith on compulsory, 60, 96; Robert Owen and, 238 _n._; Fourier and, 253

Effertz, O., 420 _n._

Eheberg, K. T., 266 _n._

Eichthal, G. d’, 374, 594 _n._

Einaudi, L., 546 _n._, 567

Eisenach, Congress of, 354, 417, 436, 437, 438

Eltzbacher, P., 621 _n._, 625 _n._, 638 _n._

Ely, R. T., 351 _n._, 507 _n._

Enclosure Acts, in England, 145

Enfantin, B. P., 201 _n._, 203 _n._, 211, 212 _and n._, 213, 216 _n._, 226 _and n._, 229, 230 _n._, 231

Engels, F., 208 _n._, 209, 228, 449 _n._, 450 _n._, 464 _n._, 616

Ensor, R. C., 449 _n._

_Entrepreneur_, the, J. B. Say and, 65 _n._, 113-114; Sismondi and, 183; the Saint-Simonians and, 215, 216; French and English economists’ conception of the income of, 373 _n._, 550; and production, 426; in Walras’s system, 533-534; and Walker’s conception of profit, 550; distinguished from the capitalist, 550 _and n._; a “captain of industry,” 550

Environment, Robert Owen and, 238, 239; Fourier and, 247; the Associationists and, 259; Le Play and, 494

Equalitarians, 200

Equilibrium, the Mathematical school and, 533-536, 539

Erfurt, Congress of, 507

“Ergonomy,” 375

Escarra, É., 560 _n._, 577 _nn._

Esmein, A., 34 _n._, 35 _n._

Espinas, A., xi

Etiology, Robert Owen regarded as the father of, 238

Evolution, and solidarity, 609

Exchange, the Physiocratic view of, 27, 46, 49, 114; Condillac on, 50; Proudhon and, 299-300, 309-314; Dunoyer and, 348; Marx and, 450; the final utility theory and, 523-524, 525, 526; the Mathematical school and, 528-530; and solidarity, 607, 613-614; and association, 613 _n._

Exchange Bank, Proudhon’s, 242, 243, 291, 293 _n._, 308-320, 334 _n._, 627

Exchange banks, 316

Exchange notes, Proudhon’s, 309-314, 316, 317 _n._

Exchange value, profit dependent on, 90

“Exploitation,” the Saint-Simonians and, 214, 215, 216; Sismondi and, 215, 216; Marx and, 215, 216; Bakunin and, 626; Kropotkin and, 627 _n._

Fabian socialists, 221, 465 _n._, 475, 579-587

Fabian Society, vii, 579-581

_Fable of the Bees, The_, 54, 70 _n._

Factory legislation, beginnings of, in England, 171; Act of 1819, 171, 237

Faguet, M., 251 _n._

Fallot, Pastor Tomy, 508 _and n._, 509

Familistère, 255

Faucher, J., 616

February Revolution—_see_ Revolution of 1848

Ferrara, F., 333 _n._

Ferrier, F., 278 _n._

Festy, O., 258 _n._

Fetter, Professor F. A., 522 _n._

Feuerbach, L. A., 616, 623 _n._

Fichte, J. G., 435-436 _n._

Final utility theory, 474, 521-528, 539, 583

Finance, the science of, 645

Fiscal reform, and solidarity, 602

Fisher, Irving, 71 _n._, 522 _n._, 529 _n._, 541 _n._, 583

Fix, T., 197

Fleurant, M., 594 _n._

Fontenay, R. de, 146 _n._, 156, 338 _n._

Fouillée, A., 560, 600 _n._, 606

Fourier, C., 137 _n._, 169, 194; and the Saint-Simonians, 201 _n._; 231; on association, 232 _n._; 233; and Robert Owen, 234-235, 245; his work and ideas, 245-246; his Phalanstère, 246-251, 257; “Back to the land,” 251-252; and the attractiveness of labour, 252-253; and education, 253; and the sex question, 253-254; and anti-militarism, 254; his influence and following, 254-255; Stuart Mill on Fourierism, 255; and interest, 259; 261, 264; and Free Trade, 265 _n._; 290; Proudhon and, 296, 297 _n._; 300; and “the right to work,” 301; 323, 378, 465, 470, 486, 544, 589; and guarantism, 599, 604; claimed as an anarchist, 615

Fournière, E., 465 _n._, 469 _n._

Foville, M. de, 156 _nn._

Foxwell, Professor, 231 _n._, 244 _n._, 316 _n._, 607 _n._

France, population in, 125, 136 _n._, 137; economic unity of, achieved, 266; and tariffs, 269, 280; List on Protection and, 276 _n._; the classic land of socialism, 323; Protection in, 323; the Classical doctrines in, 352; Stuart Mill on the growth of population in, 359; Christian Socialism in, 508; anarchism and, 640

Frankfort, 268 _n._

Franklin, B., 329; Bastiat and, 329 _n._

Free contract, the anarchists and, 627-628

“Free credit,” 307, 319, 320

Free Trade, the Physiocrats and, 17, 29-31, 98, 153; the Physiocrats the founders of, 29; Adam Smith and, 98-102, 153; J. B. Say and, 115; Ricardo and, 153, 154, 163; the theory in the middle of the nineteenth century, 264-265; Fourier and, 265 _n._; Cournot and, 265 _n._; and agriculture, List on, 276; Carey and, 282-283; List and, 287-288; 298; follows the interest of the consumer, 343; Dunoyer and, 347; Stuart Mill and, 365, 411 _n._; and the Corn Laws, 366; Prince Smith and, 376

Free utility theory, Bastiat’s, 335-340

Frézouls, P., 547 _n._, 554 _n._

Froebel, F., a disciple of Fourier, 253

Galiani, the Abbé, his criticism of the Physiocratic doctrine, 32; 46, 47

_Garantisme_, Fourier’s, 254. _See_ Guarantism

Garçon, M., 44 _n._

Garden cities, 251, 513

Garnier, G., 103, 106, 108, 115, 295, 379 _n._

Garnier, J., 379

Gendre, F. Le, 11 _n._

George, Henry, and the Physiocrats, 45 _n._; and rent, 141, 565-568, 575; and land nationalisation, 141, 155, 577 _n._; 376, 465 _n._, 506; and man’s right to the land, 561; his career and his works, 563-564; 569, 573; and _laissez-faire_, 573 _n._

Germany, political and economic condition of, in the nineteenth century, 265, 266; tariffs in, 266, 280, 281; the movement for economic unity in, 267-268; List and the claim of, to Holland and Denmark, 272; the English Corn Laws and, 276-277; and Protection, 281 _n._, 289; the Classical doctrines in, 352; State Socialism in, 445-446; Christian Socialism in, 507

Gervinus, G. G., 383 _n._

Gibbon, E., 105

Gide, C., 245 _n._, 246 _n._, 334 _n._, 342 _n._, 522 _n._, 576 _n._, 592 _n._, 605 _n._

Godin, A., 255

Godwin, Wm., 122, 131, 136 _n._, 200 _and n._, 579, 615

Goehre, Pastor, 507

Goethe, 400

“Good price”—_see_ _Bon prix_

Gossen, H. H., 155, 349, 474 _n._, 522 _n._, 529 _n._; and land nationalisation, 571-577; and the confiscation of rent, 574-575

Gounelle, E., 506 _n._, 508 _nn._, 509

Gournay, V. de, 4 _n._; and the origin of the term _laissez-faire_, 11 _n._

Gouth, Pastor, 508

Government, in Saint-Simon’s system, 207-209; Adam Smith on, 217, 625; Proudhon and, 310-311, 624 _n._; Chevalier and, 412; the State Socialists and, 439-440, 441; the anarchists and, 624-627; and society, 631; and the social instinct, 632

Grand, G., 482 _n._

Grave, J., 615, 619 _n._, 622, 626 _n._, 628, 629, 630, 631 _n._, 633 _n._, 634, 635 _n._, 636 _n._

Great Britain, growth of wealth and population in, 131

Grün, K., 298 _n._, 323 _n._

Guarantism, 599, 604. _See_ _Garantisme_

Guesde, J., 453 _n._, 465 _n._

Guillaume, J., 459 _n._, 619 _n._, 631 _n._

Guillaumin, U. G., 295

Gustavus III, of Sweden, and the Physiocrats, 5

Guyau, J. M., 598 _n._

Guyot, Y., 343 _n._, 358 _n._, 608 _n._

Halévy, É., 104 _n._, 119 _n._, 141 _n._, 207 _n._, 230 _n._

Hall, C., 579

Hamilton, A., 277

Hanover, 268 _n._

Hardie, J. Keir, 506

Hargreaves, J., 65

Harmel, L., 499 _n._

Harmony, Bastiat’s doctrine of, 330-346

Harmony, Fourier’s ideal city, 249 _and n._, 254

Hasbach, W., 69 _n._

Hawthorne, N., 255 _n._

Hedonism, xv, 10; Adam Smith’s Optimism distinct from that of, 93; 355; Ruskin and Tolstoy and, 510; definition of, 518

Hedonistic school, and free competition, 91, 240, 373 _n._, 518, 543, 605 _n._; 335, 395, 407; its doctrines, 518-544; and the Classical school, 518-521, 539, 541 _n._, 544; and wages, 520-521, 541; and interest and rent, 520-521; France and, 529, 537; criticism of its doctrines, 537-544; and distribution, 541

Heeren, A. H. L., 383 _n._

Hegel, 435 _and n._, 619

“Hegelian school, left,” 616 _n._

Hegelian terminology, Proudhon and, 298 _n._

Held, A., 386

Heredity, and solidarity, 588

Hermann, F., 410-411, 548 _n._, 551, 556

Herron, G. D., 507 _n._

Hesse-Darmstadt, Tariff Union between Prussia and, 268

Higgs, H., 5 _n._

Hildebrand, Bruno, 196, 271 _n._, 380 _n._, 381 _n._, 383-384, 385, 389 _and n._, 390, 394, 400 _and n._, 404, 405

Hirst, Miss M. E., 275 _n._, 277 _n._, 278 _nn._

Historical school, vi-vii, xv, 111; and political economy, 175, 222; Sismondi and, 196; List and, 287; 368, 374, 377; origin and development of, 379, 380-388; the newer school, 385-386; influence of, in England, and in France, 387-388; critical ideas of, 388-398; the positive ideas of, 398-407; A. Comte and, 404-405; and Le Play’s school, 493-494; and economic theory, 515; and the Classical school, 517; 648

History, the consideration of economic reforms based upon, 221, 222; the philosophy of, in economics, 221, 224; the place of, in economics, 400-403

Hitze, the Abbé, 496

Hobbes, T., 630

Holyoake, G. J., 244 _n._

_Homo œconomicus_, Adam Smith and, 86; 399; Carlyle and, 511; the Hedonists and, 518, 543

Howarth, C., 244

Huet, F., 495, 560

Hughes, T., 504

Humanity, in the anarchist doctrine, 623

Hume, David, Adam Smith and, 50 _n._, 53, 64 _n._, 105, 106, 273 _n._; and money, 85; 120 _n._, 149 _n._, 165

Huskisson, W., 265, 267

Hutcheson, F., 50 _n._, 53

Hyndman, H. M., 579 _n._

Ibsen, H., 511

Icaria, Cabet’s ideal State, 246, 263, 264 _n._

Identity of interests, Adam Smith and, 185, 410; Sismondi and, 185-186, 410, 413; Malthus and Ricardo and, 410; Hermann and, 410-411; Stuart Mill and, 411; Cournot and, 413

_Immortale Dei_, Encyclical, 501

_Impôt unique_, 45, 61, 567

Indirect and direct taxation, the Physiocrats and, 44-45

Individual, the State and, 442-443; Walras on the State and, 573-574; in philosophical anarchism, 615; Stirner and the cult of the, 617-619, 622-623; Proudhon and the anarchists and, 622-623, 630; and society, the anarchists and, 629-631; Bakunin on, 630, 631 _n._; Jean Grave and, 631 _n._

Individualism, xi, 263; List and, 270; the Classical school and, 322, 355, 356; Bastiat and, 330; Stuart Mill and, 355, 356 _and n._; Ricardo and Malthus and, 355; Herbert Spencer and, 356; and solidarity, 356 _n._; and liberty, 356; the Liberal school and, 357 _n._; Dupont-White and, 443 _n._; Wagner and, 443 _n._; Christian Socialism and, 509; modern development of, 516; anarchism and, 640, 642; syndicalism and, 642

Individualist school, 355; known also as the Liberal school, 356; definition of, 356 _n._; and inheritance, 372 _n._

Individuality, solidarity and, 612-613

Induction, 395, 397-398

Industrial and Provident Societies Acts of 1852-62, 505

Industrial Revolution, 65, 104, 111

Industrialism, of Saint-Simon, 202-211, 224; Fourier and, 251

Industry, regarded as sterile by the Physiocrats, 13; the inherent distinction between agriculture and, 17-18; the Physiocrats’ erroneous view of, 46; Sismondi and, 194; Saint-Simon and, 204, 205 _and n._, 206; List and, 274, 286, 287

Ingersoll, C., 278

Ingram, J. K., v, xi, 385 _n._, 404

Inheritance, the Saint-Simonians and 217-218, 223, 224; the State to be sole inheritor of property, 223; the French Revolution and, 223; the Phalanstère and, 246; Dunoyer and, 347 _n._; Senior and, 351 _and n._, 372; Stuart Mill and, 372

Institutional Church, 506

Interest, the Physiocrats and, 32-33; Condillac and, 50; Adam Smith and, 65 _n._, 92, 96; Bentham and, 96 _n._; Sismondi and, 176 _n._, 192-193 _n._; Marx and, 184-185; the Saint-Simonians and, 213 _n._, 214; downward trend of the rate of, 223; Robert Owen and, 240 _n._; Blanc and, 259-260; Fourier and, 259; Proudhon’s Exchange Bank and, 298 _n._, 308-310, 312, 313, 314, 319; Solway’s scheme and, 319; the People’s Bank and, 319; Bastiat and Proudhon’s controversy as to the legitimacy of, 333 _n._-334 _n._; Bastiat and, 340-342; Senior and, 350; the term as used by the French economists, 373 _n._; final utility and, 528; Böhm-Bawerk and, 530, 540; and wages, Henry George on, 565; the proposed confiscation of, 568; “the remuneration of sacrifice,” 568; the Fabian school and the confiscation of, 582

Interests, the spontaneous harmony of, 633. _See_ Identity of Interests

International trade, Adam Smith and, 98-100; Stuart Mill and, 98-100; Ricardo and, 98, 138, 163, 363 _and n._-364 _and n._; List and, 290; Bastiat and, 330; Dunoyer and, 363

International Working Men’s Association (the “International”), 321, 449 _n._, 620

Internationalism, Marx’s, 465 _n._

Interventionism, 407

Interventionists, Sismondi the first of the, 192, 196; 601

Ireland, 104

“Iron law,” the, 42, 342 _n._

Italy, xii; anarchism and, 640

Janet, P., 254

Jannet, C., 490 _n._, 592 _n._

Jaurès, J., 469 _n._

“Jeunes Abbés, Les,” 502

Jevons, Stanley, 46 _n._, 48, 75, 78, 117; on the Ricardian school, 118 _n._; and the law of indifference, 148, 525 _n._; his economic method, 380; 406, 474 _n._; on the purpose of economics, 518 _n._; and the final utility theory, 521 _n._, 522 _n._; and Cournot, 529 _n._; a member of the Mathematical school, 529 _n._; and value, 530 _n._; 537 _n._, 541, 572 _n._, 581

Joint-stock companies, Marxism and, 463, 476

Joint-stock principle, 248

Joseph II, Emperor of Austria, and the Physiocrats, 5

“Juridical socialism,” 606, 607 _n._

Jurisprudence, solidarity and, 606-607

Justice, Proudhon on, 298-299

_Kapital_, Marx’s, 354, 386, 449 _n._; Labriola on, 467

Kautsky, K., 480 _n._

Ketteler, Monseigneur von, 496

Kidd, B., 485 _n._

King, G., 54

Kingsley, C., 504 _and n._, 505 _n._

Knies, K., 89, 196 _and n._, 380 _n._, 381 _n._, 382 _n._, 384-385, 389, 390-391, 392, 393, 400 _n._, 402, 403 _n._, 404, 405

Kohler, C., 277 _n._

Kraus, Professor, 106 _n._

Kropotkin, Prince, 459 _n._, 615, 616, 619 _and n._, 621-622, 623, 625, 627 _and n._, 628, 630, 631 _n._, 632, 633, 634 _and n._, 635, 636, 637-638, 641

Kurella, Herr, 584 _n._

Kutter, Pastor, 507

Labour, regarded by Adam Smith as the true source of wealth, 56-57; regarded as the measure of value, 77, 149; regarded by Marx as the cause of value, 77, 151 _n._, 184-185; regarded by Ricardo as the cause and measure of value, 140, 144 _n._, 149, 201 _n._, 332; Ricardo and the territorial division of, 164; Sismondi and, 176 _n._; Saint-Simon on, 206 _n._; Fourier and the attractiveness of, 252-253; Proudhon on the organisation of, 291 _n._; Proudhon and the productiveness of, 293 _and nn._; regarded by Bastiat as the determinant of value, 332; Carey on, as the measure of value, 332; and value, Ferrara and, 333 _n._; Dunoyer on, 347-348 _and n._; Rodbertus and, 423; Marx’s theory of surplus labour, 450-459; rent of, 558 _n._; Henry George and the relation of capital to, 564-565

Labour, division of, Adam Smith and, 56-62, 91; the outcome of personal interest, 70-71; dependent upon capital, 90; Ricardo and the territorial division of labour, 164; Tolstoy and, 514; solidarity and, 607

Labour notes, Robert Owen’s, 315, 316

Labour-value theory, Marx’s, 474-475, 581

Labriola, A., 36 _n._, 449 _n._, 462 _n._, 464 _n._, 465 _and n._, 467, 469 _n._, 470 _n._, 473 _n._, 474 _n._

Lacordaire, J., 262

Lafargue, P., 465 _n._

Lafayette, G., 267

Lagardelle, H., 482 _n._, 619 _n._

_Laissez-faire_, in the Physiocratic doctrine, 11; the origin of the formula, 11 _n._; 170, 173, 197; List and, 277; the Classical school and, 322, 357, 390; the right interpretation of, 324; Stuart Mill and, 357; Cairnes and, 374; the Christian schools and, 377; the Historical school and, 389; Adam Smith and, 408, 410; Carlyle and, 511; the Hedonists and, 541; Henry George and 573 _n._

Lalande, A., 600 _n._

Lamartine, A., 302 _n._, 303

Lammenais, the Abbé de, 496

Land, the Physiocratic conception of, as an agent in production, 12; and rent, in Ricardo’s view, 143-149; nationalisation of, 155, 570-578; the Saint-Simonians and, 214; Carey’s theory of the order of cultivation of rich and poor land, 338-339; growth in value of, 546; a gift of nature, 559; confiscation of, 559-562; and the theory of rent, 561

Land Tenure Reform Association, 562

Landez, A., 540 _n._

Landowners, the Physiocrats’ esteem for, 39-40

Landrecht, the Prussian, 445

Landry, A., 420 _n._, 470 _n._, 537 _n._, 544 _n._

Langlois, C. V., 405 _n._

Laskine, M., 208 _n._

Lassalle, F., 73 _n._, 159, 261, 294, 329, 376; and the “brazen law,” 321, 426; and State Socialism, 414; and Rodbertus, 414-415, 416, 417; and Bismarck, 414; his career, 432; his political and economic programme, 433-435; and Marx, 433 _n._, 434 _n._; and State intervention, 434-435; 436, 437, 449 _n._, 453 _n._, 496 _n._, 607 _n._

Lauderdale, Earl of, 109 _n._

Launay, M. de, 609 _n._

Launhardt, Herr, 529 _n._

Laveleye, É. de, 222, 376, 577 _n._

Lavergne, L. G. de, 371 _n._

Lavoisier, A. L., 15, 125

Law, Kropotkin on, 627 _n._, 632 _n._; Reclus on, 632 _n._

Law of capillarity, 137

Law of concentration of capital, Marx’s, 450, 475-476

Law of demand and supply, 359-360

Law of diminishing returns, 118, 126, 146-147, 148, 153, 157, 340, 341, 373, 558 _and n._

Law of free competition, 356-358

Law of indifference, 148, 525, 527 _n._

Law of international exchange, 362-366

Law of population, Malthus’s, 120, 121-137; of the Classical school, 358-359, 373

Law of rent, 362

Law of sale, Cournot’s, 531 _n._

Law of self-interest, 355-356

Law of substitution, 525, 526, 528, 537 _n._

Law of variation of intensity of need, 543 _n._

Law of wages, 360-362

Lazare, B., 620

Ledru-Rollin, A. A., 303

Legrand, D., 486

Leo XII, Pope, 500 _n._

Leo XIII, Pope, 501

Leopold, Grand Duke, of Tuscany, and the Physiocrats, 5

Leroux, P., 235 _and n._, 263, 344 _n._, 589

Leroy-Beaulieu, P., 137, 254 _n._, 342 _n._, 375 _n._; and the Mathematical method, 537 _n._; 546

Leslie, Cliffe, 196, 387

Lesseps, F. de, 212

Letchworth, 513 _n._

Levasseur, É., 326 _n._, 388 _n._

Lévy de Lyon, E., 607 _n._

Lévy-Brühl, L., 435 _n._

Lexis, Professor, 448 _n._

Liberal individualists, and co-operation, 343

Liberal Optimists, 322-348

Liberal school, xv; the Physiocratic doctrine and, 46; Adam Smith a member of, 53; beginnings of, 54; and Adam Smith’s theory of value, 75; 205; Saint-Simon and, 210 _n._; the Associationists and, 231; 233; severance of, into French and English sections, 322; and Protection and socialism, 323, 326, 354; and Optimism, 324-326; and liberty, 324, 325-326; origin of the name, 324; and association, 325; and Darwin’s doctrine of the survival of the fittest, 326; and the Physiocrats, 327; Bastiat and, 327; and Bastiat’s theory of profits, 342 _n._; synonymous with the Individualist school, 356; definition of, 356 _n._, 357 _n._; and the repeal of the Corn Laws, 366; Le Play and, 486-487; and solidarity, 607-608; 629; and government and society, 631; 648

Liberal Socialism, 573

Liberalism, economic, vii, xv, 170; Sismondi and, 173, 185; 209; 311 _n._; the Classical school and, 322; and Optimism, 377; the reaction against, 377-378; effect of Bismarck’s policy upon, 436; and measures of social reform in Germany, 436 _n._; growth of, in Germany, 439; State Socialism and, 447; the Christian schools and, 484; 493; modern revival of, 516; 586; political economy and, 646, 647

Liberalism of Adam Smith, 207; of the Liberal school, 326

Liberalism, political, the Saint-Simonians and, 211

Liberty, the French Revolution and, 104; Blanc on, 262; Sismondi on, 262 _n._; Proudhon and, 293, 297, 315; the French Liberal school and, 324, 325-327; Dunoyer and, 327; Stuart Mill and, 353, 358, 413; and the natural laws, 355; the Classical school and, 356; and State intervention, 413; Cournot and, 413; the State Socialists and, 440; the anarchists and, 622-623, 624, 629; Kropotkin on liberty as the corrective for the excesses of liberty, 634

Liberty, individual, the Physiocratic doctrine and, 10 _n._, 11; Proudhon and, 315; Ricardo and Malthus and, 410; Stuart Mill and, 411 _n._; Rodbertus and, 429

Lichtenberger, A., 200 _n._

Lieben, R., 529 _n._

Liebknecht, W., 437

Lilienfeld, von, 590 _n._

List, F., 111; and the Classical school, 169, 289, 290; his _National System_, and Protection, 265, 268; and the German tariffs, 266, 267-268; and nationality, 270-272; and productive power, 270; and Germany’s claim to Holland and Denmark, 272; and Adam Smith and his school, 273; and manufactures, 273-274; and agriculture, 274, 276-277; his Protectionism, 275-276, 281-282; origin of his Protectionist ideas, 277-280; his influence, 280-287; and history, 282, 381; and Carey, 282-284; and Stuart Mill, 284-285; his originality, 287-289; and the Historical school, 287, 360 _n._; and free exchange, 287-288; and the individual and the nation, 288, 411; and the duty of Governments, 288; and economic reforms in Germany, 288-289; his aim and achievement, 290; 323, 378; his economic method, 380; the Historical school and, 380 _n._; 439

Littré, M., 222 _n._

Lloyd, S., 266 _n._

Locke, J., 559

Loesewitz, J., 502

Longe, F. D., 361

Loria, A., 469 _n._; and land nationalisation, 578 _n._

Lorin, H., 499 _n._

Louis Bonaparte, 320

Louis Philippe, 301

Ludlow, J. M. F., 504, 505

Luxembourg Commission, the, 302, 304-306, 319 _n._

Mably, the Abbé de, 200 _and n._

McCulloch, J. R., 52 _n._, 109 _n._, 139 _n._, 140 _n._, 141 _n._, 150, 168, 175, 177, 349 _n._, 379

Mackay, J. H., 615 _n._

McVickar, J., 349

Machinery, Adam Smith and, 112; J. B. Say on, 112; Sismondi and, 180-182; the Classical school and, 180-182; Ricardo and, 180 _n._, 181

Maitland, F. W., vi

Malon, Benoît, 465 _n._

Malthus, T. R., xiv, 108, 109 _n._, 110, 116 _and n._, 117; one of the Pessimists, vi, 119-120, 192; regarded as an Optimist, 119 _n._; his career, 120 _n._; his law of population, 120, 121-137, 157, 345; and moral restraint, 127-129; and the Neo-Malthusians, 134; on charity, 135 _n._-136 _n._; correspondence with Ricardo, 139 _n._, 141 _n._; and rent, 142, 152, 164; and the law of diminishing returns, 146-147 _and n._; 149 _n._, 150 _n._, 155, 156 _n._; and wages and population, 158-159, 189; 163 _n._; and Protection, 164; Sismondi and, 175; Sismondi and the theory of population of, 189 _n._; the Saint-Simonians and, 227; 264, 322, 324, 326, 348, 353; and individualism, 355; 358, 359, 371; and the identity of public and private interests, 410; 416, 564

Malthusian League, the, 134 _n._

Manchester school, xi, 436, 437, 438, 539

“Manchesterism,” 357, 447

“Manchesterthum,” 357, 438

Mandeville, B. de, 54, 70 _n._

Mangoldt, H. von, 548 _n._, 551, 556

_Manifesto, Communist_, 449 _n._, 450 _n._

Mantoux, P., 66 _n._, 97 _n._, 103, 104

Manu, the laws of, Malthus and, 132 _n._

Manufactures, List on, 273-274, 276 _and n._

Marat, J. P., 199 _n._

Marcet, Mrs., 119 _n._, 349

Marcus Aurelius, 588

“Marginal utility,” 521 _n._, 539

Marie, A. T., 301, 302 _n._

Markets, Say’s theory of, 115

Marmande, R. de, 622 _n._

Maroussem, P. du, 495 _n._

Marrast, A., 303

Marriage, effect of, upon population, 136 _n._; the anarchists and, 627

Marshall, Professor A., 329 _n._, 335, 386, 390 _n._, 391, 392, 394, 396, 397 _n._, 401, 402 _n._; compared with Marx, 474 _n._; 513 _n._, 516, 527 _n._, 529 _n._, 531, 544 _nn._, 546 _n._, 551 _n._, 552; and rent, 557 _and n._; 581

Martineau, Miss, 119 _n._, 349

Marx, Karl, x; on Adam Smith, 66 _n._; his labour-value theory, 77, 151 _n._, 184-185, 201 _n._, 216, 293 _n._, 474-475, 581; intellectually a scion of the Ricardian family, 120; his theory of surplus value and Ricardo’s theory, 140; resemblance of doctrines of, to those of the Classical school, 181; similarities between Sismondi and, 184; his theory of surplus value, 184, 198, 228, 294; and profit and interest, 185, 216; debt to Sismondi, 198; 209 _n._; and “exploitation,” 215, 216; his system and communism, 221; his system compared with the Saint-Simonians’, 225; 227; and List, 278 _n._; and his “Utopian” predecessors, 301; and Bray’s scheme, 315 _n._; and Proudhon, 320-321; and distribution, 368 _n._; 386; his socialism, 416, 433, 449-450, 470; the object of his system, 423; and the “brazen law,” 426; 429; and Rodbertus, 429 _n._; Lassalle and, 433 _n._, 434 _n._; 437, 448 _n._; his career, his works and influence, 449 _n._-450 _n._; his theory of surplus labour and surplus value, 450-459, 474-475; and capital, 455-458; his law of concentration of capital, 459-465, 475-476; the Marxian school, 465-473; his following, 465 _n._; and Ricardo, 466; his obscurity of style, 466; and value, 466 _and n._, 474; on production, 468 _n._-469 _n._; the French socialists and, 469; quality of his economic theories, 473; compared with Marshall, 474 _n._; and syndicalism, 480-481, 641; 483; the Christian schools and his collectivism, 485; Herron on, 507 _n._; 579; the Fabians and his theories, 583-584, 586; and the anarchists, 616; influenced by Hegel, 619; and Bakunin, 620; anarchy and his socialism, 640

Marxian school, characteristics of, 465-472; and production, 468; 515; beginnings of, 579; and Marx’s theory of value, 583; 647, 648

Marxism, vii, xv, 447, 449-483; and the Classical school, 467, 472; Sorel on, 467 _n._; and capitalism, 467; a working-class socialism, 470-471, 480; the evolution of, 473 _n._; and syndicalism, 479-483; its contempt for intellectualism, 480; traced in the doctrines of Le Play’s school, 495; the Fabians and, 583-584, 586; the rupture with anarchism, 620

Mathematical school, the, x; Quesnay a pioneer of, 19 _n._; and the abstract method, 138; 335; and the Mathematical method, 392 _n._, 537 _n._, 538-539; and the Psychological school, 521; principal adherents of, 528 _n._; doctrines of, 528-537; and exchange, 528-530; and distribution, 529-530; and consumption, 530; and value, 530 _n._; and production, 536; and free competition, 543; influence of, 544; and solidarity, 613

Maurice, F. D., 504 _and n._, 505, 508 _n._

Mazel, F., 316, 317

Mecklenburg, 268 _n._

Mehring, F., 434 _n._

Méline, M., 17 _n._

Melouga family, 489, 493

Menenius Agrippa, 588

Menger, A., 209, 212, 231 _n._, 316 _n._; and the origin of Rodbertus’s ideas, 415 _n._; and Marx, 416 _n._, 450 _n._; and Fichte, 436 _n._; and private and public rights, 607 _n._

Menger, K., 76, 380; and the historical method 382, 383 _n._, 402 _n._; and the Historical school, 389, 390, 395, 517; and the deductive method, 396 _nn._; and the final utility theory, 522 _n._; and the theory of rent, 557

_Mercanti di tenute_, 190

Mercantilism, the “net product” theory and, 17; influence of Physiocratic ideas upon, 27; Physiocracy antagonistic to, 29; and agriculture and industry, 30 _n._; Adam Smith and, 83, 97, 98, 100, 101, 169; List and, 279

Mercantilist school, 1; and the increase of wealth, 17; their view of the State, 27; Adam Smith’s _Wealth of Nations_ and, 83; and money, 83, 314; List and, 280, 285 _n._

Meredith, George, 432 _n._

Meslier, the Curé, 200 _n._

Method, the relative importance of, 397, 645

Métin, A., 577 _n._, 579 _n._

Meyer, Ed., 402 _n._, 405 _n._

Meyer, R., 416 _and n._, 417 _nn._, 423 _n._, 428 _n._

_Mieux value_, 184

Milcent, M., 502 _n._

Mill, James, and rent, 155, 168, 562; and land nationalisation, 155, 168; a disciple of Ricardo, 168, 349 _n._; 352 _n._

Mill, John Stuart, xv; and productive and unproductive works, 62; “industry is limited by capital,” 72 _n._; and Adam Smith’s conception of utility, 75 _n._; and international trade, 98, 100, 330 _n._; and “products,” 109 _n._; 138; and Ricardo’s theory of rent, 141; and the stationary state, 162, 373-374, 605 _n._; 222 _n._; on Saint-Simonism and Fourierism, 255; 280; and Protection, 283, 284-285, 365; and List, 285 _n._; and the Classical school, 322, 352-353, 368; 349; his career and works, 352 _n._, 353; and socialism, 352 _n._, 353, 358, 367, 368; and communism, 353, 367; and competition, 353, 358; and co-operation, 353; and individualism, 355, 356 _and n._; and _laissez-faire_, 357; and the law of population, 358-359; and the law of demand and supply, 359-360, 519; and value, 360; and the law of wages, 360-362; and trade unionism, 360, 362 _n._; and Malthus, 362 _n._; and rent, 362, 370-372, 548, 551, 553, 554-555; and international exchange, 364-365; and Free Trade, 365, 411 _n._; influence upon economics, 367; French influence upon, 367, 579; and natural law, 368; his programme of social reform, 369-374; and wages, 369-370; and association, 370, 505; and inheritance, 372; his successors, 374-376; 377, 379; and relativity, 392; and self-interest, 394, 411; 404; and the identity of general and personal interests, 411; and State intervention, 411, 413; and individual liberty, 411 _n._, 413; Chevalier and, 411; and the State and the individual, 442, 443, 444; on Le Play’s theory of the salvation of the working-classes by the upper, 491; on the rent of ability, 549; and man’s right to the land, 561; and the confiscation of rent, 562-563, 566, 567, 568, 569, 570-571, 575; 564; and private property, 568 _n._; and the abolition of profit, 605 _n._

Millerand, A., 587 _n._

Mines and the “net product,” 14

Mirabeau, Marquis de, one of the Physiocrats, 3 _n._; and Rousseau and Physiocracy, 6 _n._; and the origin of the term _laissez-faire_, 11 _n._; on the _Tableau économique_, 18 _n._; and interest, 32-33; Cantillon’s influence upon, 46 _n._; on population, 121

Molinari, M. de, 248, 329 _n._, 358 _n._

Mollien, the Comte, 314

Money, Adam Smith and, 71, 82-85, 89, 106, 115; the Physiocrats and, 115; Ricardo and the quantity theory of, 164-165; Ricardo and paper money, 165-167; Robert Owen and, 240-241, 243; Proudhon and, 308-310, 313, 316; Solvay’s scheme, 318-319; the Classical school and, 360; Ruskin and Tolstoy and, 510

Monod, W., 508 _n._, 509 _n._

Monopoly, x; Adam Smith and, 95, 96; Stuart Mill and, 554 _n._; and the rent of land, 554 _n._

Monopoly price, Adam Smith on, 81 _n._

Montagne, La, 200 _n._

Montalembert, the Comte de, 487 _n._

Montchrétien, A. de, 1

Montesquieu, C. de S., 121

More, Sir Thomas, 200 _and n._, 246

Morellet, the Abbé, 46

Morelly, 200 _and n._

Morris, Wm., 251

Moufang, Canon, 496

Mulhouse, the Industrial Society of, 172

Müller, Adam, 278 _n._

Mun, the Comte de, 484 _n._, 497, 502

Mutual aid, the anarchists and, 629-636

Mutual credit, 314, 315; solidarity and, 606

Mutualists, and solidarity, 602, 603-604

Mutuality, Proudhon and, 297 _n._, 299, 300

Napoleon I, 107

Napoleon III, 280, 323, 366, 375, 490 _n._

Nassau, 268 _n._

National Equitable Labour Exchange, 236 _n._, 241-242, 244 _n._

National workshops of the 1848 Revolution, 301-303

Nationalisation of the land, 570-578

Nationality, List and, 270-272

Natural laws, 354-366, 368, 385 _n._; the anarchists and, 628, 629

“Natural order,” the, xiv, 5-12; meaning of the term, 5-8; the Physiocrats’ conception of, 8, 9-10, 109; Turgot on the universality and immutability of, 10; and the old _régime_, 10; the aim of, 10-11; and the right of private property and individual liberty, 10 _n._, 11; comprehensiveness of, 12; the bon prix and, 15; property the “foundation-stone” of, 21; and trade, 29; the conception of, constitutes the foundation of political economy, 46; Adam Smith and, 109; Ricardo’s theory of rent and, 152; the French Classical school and, 322, 323; the Christian schools and, 484

“Naturalism,” Adam Smith’s, 68-88

Naumann, Pastor, 507

Navigation Laws, 101 _n._

Neale, Vansittart, 504

Necessity, the laws of, Kropotkin on, 628 _n._

Necker, J., and free trade in corn, 32; 157

“Negative rent,” 558

Neill, C. P., 277 _n._

Neo-Classical school, 10, 397

Neo-Malthusians, 130, 134

Neo-Marxism, 473-483; and the labour-value theory, 474; and surplus labour and surplus value, 475; and syndicalism, 479-483

“Net product,” the, 12-18; agriculture the sole source of, 12, 14; mines doubtful yielders of, 14 _and n._; disappears when prices are low, 15; the illusion of, 16; rent and, 16; value of the theory of, 17; and Mercantilism, 17; non-existent, 24; interest a symbol of, 32; taxation should be drawn from, 38-40, 41; adaptation of, to the _impôt unique_, 43; 453 _n._

Netchaieff, 639 _and n._

Nettlau, M., 619 _n._

New Harmony, Owen’s colony, 236 _n._, 241 _n._, 246, 257

New Moral World. 236 _n._

Nicholas I, Tsar, 639 _n._

Nicholson, Professor J. S., 52 _n._, 266 _n._, 592 _n._

Nietzsche, 511, 616 _and n._

Nitti, F. S., 503 _n._

“Noble savage,” the cult of the, 7

“Normal,” the term, 271

North, Dudley, 54

North, Lord, 105

Oberlin, Pastor, 486

Office du Travail, 257 _n._

Ogilvie, W., 560 _and n._

Oldenburg, 268 _n._

Olivier, P., 611 _n._

Ollivier, E., 324

Oncken, H., 11 _n._, 17, 19 _n._, 30, 383 _n._, 414 _n._, 432 _n._

Ophelimity, 75, 91, 99, 522 _n._, 541 _n._, 572

Optimism, xv; Adam Smith’s, 68-69, 88-93; the French Liberal school and, 324-327; Bastiat and, 327, 377; Carey and, 327, 493

Optimist school, definition of, 356 _n._, 357 _n._

Optimists, the, 118, 322-348, 354, 356, 368, 438

Orbiston, Robert Owen’s colony at, 236 _n._

Organic sociologists, the Physiocrats the forerunners of, 7

“Organisation of labour,” 300, 303-305, 319

Orthodox school, 169, 176, 326

Ott, A., 317 _n._, 420 _n._

Over-production, J. B. Say and, 115-117; 171; Sismondi and, 176, 178-182; the Classical school and, 181; Marx and, 461

Owen, Robert, 169, 171; Sismondi and, 173 _n._, 184, 194; 201 _n._; and association, 232 _n._, 233; and Fourier, 234-235, 245; and the Chartist movement, 235; and socialism, 235; his career, 235 _n._; his industrial reforms, 236-237; and association, 237; and the social _milieu_, 237-239; and profit, 239-244; and money, 240-241; and the National Equitable Labour Exchange 241-242; and co-operative societies, 243-244, 504; founded no school, 244; 246, 255, 261, 264, 290, 293, 315, 316, 323, 370, 378, 470, 579

Paepe, C. de, 459 _n._

Paillottet, P., 343 _n._

Paine, Tom, 560 _and n._

Pantaleoni, M., 36 _n._, 530, 538 _n._, 542, 551 _nn._

Parable, Saint-Simon’s, 204-205

Pareto, V., 71 _n._; on prices, 76 _n._-77 _n._; 99, 231 _n._; and Free Trade, 288 _n._; on method, 397; and maximum utility and maximum ophelimity, 412; 421, 448, 516, 521 _n._, 522 _n._, 529 _n._, 533 _n._, 534 _n._, 536 _and n._, 537 _n._, 540 _n._, 541 _n._; and the Hedonists, 542; 544 _n._, 555 _n._; and the relative duration of rents, 557; and negative rent, 558; on solidarity, 608 _n._

Passy, F., 509 _n._, 592 _n._

Passy, H., 371 _n._

Patten, Professor, 285 _n._, 522 _n._, 542 _n._

Pearson, K., 407 _n._

Peasant proprietorship, 371-372

Pecqueur, C., 304-305, 449 _n._

Peel, Sir Robert, 280, 366

Pellarin, C., 245 _n._

People’s Bank, 308 _n._, 317 _n._, 319-320

Péreire, E. and I., 212, 226

Périn, C., 502 _n._

Personal interest—_see_ Self-interest

Pervinquière, M., 14

Pessimism, the French Liberal school and, 324

Pessimists, the, 118-120; and rent, 118; and the law of diminishing returns, 118; Mill and, 372

Petty, W., 54

Pflüger, Pastor, 507

Phalange, 248-250

Phalanstère, 245 _n._, 246-252, 255, 257, 297 _n._, 604, 635

Physiocracy, 4 _n._; a popular craze, 5; Adam Smith and, 63; J. B. Say and, 108-109

Physiocrats, the, xi _n._, 1-50; and the conception of political economy, 2; the first school of economists, 3; the Abbé Baudeau on, 3 _n._; bibliography of the system, 4 _n._-5 _n._; and the “natural order,” 5-12; Rousseau and, 6 _n._; and the civilised state as opposed to a state of nature, 7; forerunners of the organic sociologists, 7; their conception of the “natural order,” and man’s duty with regard to it, 8, 9-10, 87-88; and the rights of private property and individual liberty, 10 _n._, 11; and the “net product,” 12-18, 141; and land as an agent in production, 12; on industry and commerce, 12-13; and the “sterile classes,” 14, 21; and mines and the “net product,” 14 _and n._; and agricultural and industrial production, 15; their influence upon practical politics, 17; and the circulation of wealth, 18-26; their regard for private property, 21-26, 199 _n._-200 _n._, 217; and the duties incumbent upon landed proprietors, 25-26; and the abolition of corporations, 26 _n._-27 _n._; and trade, 27-33; and Mercantilism, 27, 29, 169, 314; the founders of Free Trade, 29; and reciprocity, 31; Galiani’s criticism of, 32; and the question of interest, 32-33; and the functions of the State, 33-37; and legislation, 33-34; and political liberty, 34 _n._; and the sovereign authority, 35-37, 41; and education, 37; and internationalism, 37; and taxation, 38-45; and the fiscal system of the French Revolution, 44, 104; _résumé_ of their doctrine, 45-50; Adam Smith and, 51 _n._, 55, 56, 62, 63, 64, 65, 69, 80, 88, 93, 98, 100; 89, 97; J. B. Say and, 108-109; Germain Garnier and, 108; and money, 115; and population, 122; and rent, 142; and Free Trade, 98, 153, 163; and the natural identity of individual and general interests, 185; 201 _n._; the Associationists and, 232-233; 322, 323; and their successors, 327; 331, 338 _n._, 347, 348, 354, 371, 572, 629, 644

Pitt, William, 104, 105

Place, F., 159 _n._

Plato, 200 _and n._

Play, F. Le, 137, 196, 238, 304; his school, 486-495; his career, 486 _n._-487 _n._; his family system, 488-493; and the State, 488; his method, 492; and the Historical school, 493-494; the division in his school, 494-495; 497, 502

“Plutology,” 375

Podmore, F., 236 _n._

Political economy, origin of the term, 1; Quesnay and his school the virtual founders of the science, 2; Adam Smith as founder of, 50-51, 103; the scope of, in Adam Smith’s system, 55-56; Quesnay’s conception of, 88; Adam Smith’s conception of, 88, 89, 110; J. B. Say’s influence upon, 107, 111; influence of Malthus and Ricardo upon, 108; the Physiocrats and, 109; J. B. Say’s conception of, 110-111; Say’s treatment of, 117, 175; a fashionable craze, 119 _n._, 349; Ricardo and, 138, 139 _n._, 175; the new, the attack upon, 169; Sismondi and, 173-178, 184, 196, 198, 380; the Historical school and, 175, 222, 380, 381; the Classical school and, 177; A. Comte and, 201 _n._; Saint-Simon on, 209 _n._; List and, 270, 380-381; and politics, 288; significance of the advent of, 327; McVickar on, 349; Senior and, 350; Stuart Mill and, 353; not a “dismal science,” 354; the reaction against Liberalism, 377; development of the abstract method in, 379-380; the socialists and, 381; Roscher and, 383-384; Hildebrand and, 383-384; Knies and, 384-385; the newer Historical school and, 386; Toynbee and, 386 _n._; development of, in France, 388; influence of the Historical method upon, 388; Menger and, 389; Ashley and, 391 _n._; and sociology, 404; Ruskin and, 510 _n._; Carlyle on, 511 _and n._; modern claims for, 517; Pareto and, 536 _n._; recognised as independent of parties and ideals, 583; development and future of, 643-648; simplicity of Adam Smith’s system, 644; divergency of objects and methods among economists, 646-647; Liberalism and, 646, 647

Political Economy Club, 139 _n._

Pollock, Sir F., 559

Poor Law, English, Malthus and, 135 _n._, 136 _n._; Sismondi and, 195

Population, Adam Smith’s supply and demand theory applied to, 82, 89, 188; dependent upon capital, 90; Malthus’s law of, 120, 121-137, 142, 157, 345; the “repressive checks,” 126-127; the “preventive checks,” 127-129, 137; the reproductive capacity and intellectual activity, 137 _n._-138 _n._; Sismondi on the regulation of, by revenue, 188; wages and, 189; Sismondi and Malthus’s theory, 189 _n._; Carey’s theory of, 346; development of the theory of, 645

Port Sunlight, 255, 513 _n._

Positivism, Saint-Simon the father of, 203; 213

Pothier, R. J., 587 _n._

Potter, B. (Mrs. Sidney Webb), 587 _n._

Price, demand and supply and, 519-520; cost of production and, 520; and rent, 520

Prices, Adam Smith’s theory of, 74-81; Walras and, 114; the recent theory of, 515; development of the theory of, 645

_Principles of Revolution, The_, 639

Producer, subordination of, to consumer, 342-343

Producer’s rent, 527 _n._

Producers, and social reorganisation, 605 _n._

Producers’ associations, 604

Production, the accretion of value is, 16; labour as the cause of, 24; the Physiocratic conception of, 46, 49; the three factors of, 56 _n._; Adam Smith and, 80, 419; adaptation of supply to demand the basis of our theory of, 82; J. B. Say and, 109; Sismondi and, 177, 178-182, 193, 419; the Classical school and, 177; net and gross, Sismondi and, 189-190; the Christian Socialists and, 196; the Saint-Simonians and, 199, 226-227; Dunoyer and, 347-348; Senior on agricultural and industrial production, 362 _n._; Stuart Mill and, 368-369; Rodbertus and, 419-421, 430; State Socialism and, 444; Marx on, 468 _n._-469 _n._; cost of, and value, 520, 526; cost of, and price, 520, 534 _n._; the Hedonists and, 533; the expansion of, under the influence of applied science, 635-636

Productive power, List and, 270, 272-274

Productivity theory of capital, 502, 583; of wages, 527-528

Profit, Adam Smith on the relation of, to rent, 64 _n._; Adam Smith’s conception of, 65 _n._, 80, 114; Smith on high profits, 67, 74 _n._; dependent on exchange value, 90; Ricardo and, 114, 160-163, 373; the Pessimists and, 118; Marx and, 185, 457-458 _and n._; Robert Owen and the abolition of, 239-243; Bastiat and the relation of, to wages, 340-342, 550-551; Stuart Mill and, 373 _n._; the term as understood by English and French economists, 373 _n._; the Classical school and, 520; Walras and, 534 _n._-535 _n._; rent and, 545; Walker and, 550-551; Pantaleoni on, 551 _n._; Stuart Mill and the abolition of, 605 _n._

Profit-sharing, the Saint-Simonians and, 227

Property, private, the Physiocratic doctrine and, 10 _n._, 11, 21, 24-25; respect for, during the French Revolution, 25; Turgot’s views upon, 25; Ricardo’s theory of rent and, 154, 558-559; Sismondi and, 198; the Saint-Simonians and, 199-201, 213-225, 294 _n._; considered from the point of view of ethics, 200; Saint-Simon and, 210; exploitation and, 215; Fourier’s Phalanstère and, 248-249; the Radical Socialists and, 251; Proudhon and, 290-300, 315; Brissot and, 292 _n._; Bastiat and, 337; Marx and, 463-464; the Christian Socialists and, 506; Tolstoy and, 513; the Hedonists and, 540 _n._; considered to be unjust, 559; Stuart Mill and, 568 _n._; Gossen and, 572-573; solidarity and, 606-607; the anarchists and, 626-627, 641; syndicalism and, 641; socialism and, 642

Proprietor, the, in Ricardo’s, Proudhon’s, and Bastiat’s view, 336

Protection, the probable attitude of the Physiocrats to, 17; influence of, on agriculture and on industry, 30 _n._; Adam Smith’s criticism of, 98-99; Ricardo and, 163 _n._; Malthus and, 164; Sismondi and, 264 _n._-265 _n._; Saint-Simon and, 265 _n._; the Saint-Simonians and, 265 _n._; List and, 265, 268-290; and agriculture, List on, 276 _and n._; in the United States, 279; in Germany, 279, 280, 281; in France, 280, 281, 323, 354; Carey and, 282-284; Dühring and, 289 _n._; in England, 323, 354; Bastiat and, 329-330; follows the interest of the producer, 343; the Liberal school and, 354; Stuart Mill and, 365; the Social Catholics and, 501 _n._; and solidarity, 602

Proudhon, J. J., 169; and government, 209, 310, 311, 624 _n._, 627; his Exchange Bank, 242, 291, 293 _n._, 308-319; and private property, 290-300; his works, 291 _n._-292 _n._; his career and his character, 291-292; and interest, 293 _n._; and labour, 293; and socialism, 296-300; and Fourier, 296, 297 _n._; and the communists and communism, 296, 297, 298, 299, 300; and the economic forces, 296-297; on liberty, 297, 315; and association, 297 _and n._; on justice, 298-299; and exchange, 299-300; and the Revolution of 1848, 300-308; and “the right to work,” 301; and money, 308-310, 313-314; and co-operation, 315; and solidarity, 317; and the People’s Bank, 319-320; influence after 1848, 320-321; Marx and, 320-321, 449 _n._ 462; new interest in his ideas, 321; 323, 329; and Bastiat, 333 _n._-334 _n._, 343; and the proprietor, 336; 378, 415 _n._, 429 _n._, 450, 486; on land, 559; and the confiscation of land, 560; 607 _n._, 613; the and anarchists, 615, 641; 616, 619 _and n._; and Bakunin, 620; 622; and the individual, 622-623; and the idea of humanity, 623; and reason, 628; and society, 630, 631 _n._; on the harmony of individual and general interests, 633 _n._; 634; and revolution, 637; and syndicalism, 641

Providential order, Bastiat and, 331

Prudhommeaux, M., 264 _n._

Prussia, the tariff of 1821 of, and Adam Smith’s doctrines, 106 _n._; tariffs in, in the early nineteenth century, 266; and the Zollverein, 268; industry in, 281 _n._

Psychological school, the, 397 _n._, 521-528

Puech, M., 321 _n._, 323 _n._

“Pure” school, the, 353, 392

Quantity theory of money, 360

Quasi-contract theory, 595-599, 603 _n._, 606

Quesnay, F., 2-5; virtually the founder of political economy, 2; his works, 3 _n._; on natural right, 7 _nn._; and the analogy between social and animal economy, 7; and the “natural order,” 9, 10 _and n._; and the “net product,” 15; his theory of the circulation of wealth, and the _Tableau économique_, 18-20; on the productive and sterile classes, 21 _n._; on the landed proprietors, 21 _n._; on the security residing in property, 24 _n._; on the safety of property as the basis of economic order, 25; on the poor, 26 _n._; on foreign trade, 28; on Free Trade, 29 _nn._; on the “good price,” 29; on American competition, 30 _n._; on Protection, 31 _n._; and interest, 33; on laws, 34; on the sovereign authority, 35; on despotism, 36 _n._; on education, 37; on Government expenditure, 38 _n._; and the “iron law,” 42-43; and wages, 43 _n._; and value, 47 _n._; 54; and Adam Smith, 55; and agriculture as the source of all wealth, 56; his conception of political economy, 88; Adam Smith’s criticism of his theory, 88; 201 _n._, 232, 298

Quetelet, L., 407 _n._

_Quod Apostolici_, Encyclical, 500 _n._

Radical party, English, 372

Radical-Socialist party, 592, 601

Rae, J., 52 _n._, 64 _n._, 66 _n._, 96 _n._, 103 _n._, 106 _n._

Ragaz, Professor, 507

Raiffeisen, F. W., 496, 503 _n._

Rambaud, J., xi, 277 _n._, 503 _n._

Rau, K. H., 352, 379

Rauschenbusch, W., 507 _n._

Raymond, D., 277 _n._

Reason, the anarchists and, 628, 641

Reciprocity, Mercier de la Rivière on, 31; Proudhon on, 310 _n._

Reclus, É., 615, 619, 622, 624, 627 _n._, 628, 632 _n._, 636, 637

Reichel, 631 _n._

Reid, T., 560

Religion, Robert Owen and, 238-239

Renard, G., 465 _n._, 469 _n._

Renouvier, C. B., 403 _n._, 560

Rent, the theory of, xv; Ricardo’s conception of the nature of, 16, 114; and the “net product,” 17; Adam Smith and, 64, 80, 92; relation of wages and profit to, 64 _n._; J. B. Say and, 114-115, 556; the Pessimists and, 118; Ricardo’s theory of, 138, 140-157, 164, 335, 338, 339, 370, 545-546, 547, 548 _and n._, 552-553, 544 _n._, 555 _n._, 558-559, 561, 581-583, 587; differential rent, 142, 546-558; Malthus and, 142, 152, 164; James Mill and, 155, 562; the Saint-Simonians and, 213 _n._, 214, 562; Carey and, 327, 338-340, 425, 545, 546; Bastiat and, 335-338, 340, 425, 545, 546; Fontenay and, 338 _n._; Senior and, 350-351, 362; the Classical school and, 362, 520, 547; Stuart Mill and, 362, 370-372, 548, 554, 555, 562-563, 566, 567-568, 569; Rodbertus and, 424, 425; modern economists and, 516; and price, 520; an “unearned increment,” 545; growth in, 546; of land, 546-548, 554-555, 556-557; of capital, 548-549 _n._; 558 _n._, 583; of ability, 549, 551, 582, 583; Walker’s theory, 549-552; and profit, 550-552; and the Classical theory of distribution, 553; a consequence of the laws of value, 555; of land, a species of the income of fixed capital, 556; a scarcity price, 556; Schäffle and, 556-557; K. Menger and, 557; relative permanence of rents, 557; negative rent, 558; J. B. Clark and, 558 _n._; and private property, 558-559; man’s right to the land and the theory of rent, 561; of land, spontaneous character of, 561; the confiscation of, 562-570; Henry George and, 563-568, 569; the relation of wages to the increase in, 566 _and n._; Gossen and Walras and the confiscation of, 574-575; Sidney Webb and Ricardo’s theory of, 581-583; interest regarded as, 582; “economic rent,” 582 _n._, 583 _n._; the Fabian doctrine and Ricardo’s theory of, 587

_Rerum Novarum_, Encyclical, 501 _n._

Revolution, Proudhon on, 320 _n._; Marxism and, 471-472; Neo-Marxism and, 481-482; Buchez on Christianity and, 496; the anarchists and, 637-640, 641

Revolution, French, the Physiocratic system and, 44, 104; socialism and, 199 _n._; the leaders of, and private property, 199 _n._-200 _n._; 205, 214, 223

Revolution, the Industrial, 65, 104, 111

Revolution of 1848, Blanc and, 256; Proudhon and, 300-308, 311 _n._; and socialism, 300; 436-437

_Revolutionary Catechism_, Netchaieff’s, 639

Reybaud, M., 300-301, 306, 354

Ribbes, M. de, 492 _n._

Ricardo, D., x, xiv; against the idea that nature is the only source of value, 16; his conception of what rent is, 16; and Adam Smith’s reference to utility, 75 _n._; and international trade, 98, 99, 100, 163-164, 363 _and n._-364 _and n._; influence on political economy, 108, 138, 175; and distribution, 114, 139-140; and wages and profits, 114, 157-163, 373; and crises, 117, 177, 192; compared with J. B. Say, 118; regarded as an Optimist, 119 _n._; one of the Pessimists, vi, 119-120, 192; his place in economics, his work and literary style, 138-139; his career, 139 _n._; his theory of rent, 138, 140, 141-157, 164, 335, 338, 339, 370, 545-546, 547-548 _and n._, 552-553, 554 _n._, 555 _n._, 558-559, 576; his theory of value, 138, 140-141, 149-151, 240; and labour and value, 140, 144 _n._, 332; and the law of diminishing returns, 146-147, 373, 576; and the balance of trade theory and the quantity theory of money, 164-165; and paper money, 165, 168; Sismondi and, 174-175, 177 _and n._, 380; and machinery, 180 _n._, 181 _and n._; and wages and population, 189; the Saint-Simonians and, 227; 228; and property, 228; 264; List and, 269; 287, 322, 324; and the proprietor, 336; 348, 349; and the income of capital, 350; 353; and individualism, 355; 362, 371, 379, 386 _n._, 390; and the identity of public and private interests, 410; Rodbertus on his theory of value, 415 _n._; 416, 453 _n._; the Marxian school and, 466; his method, 466; man’s right to the land, and his theory of rent, 561; 564, 566 _n._; Sidney Webb and his theory of rent, 581-583; the Fabian doctrine and his theory of rent, 587

Richelot, H., 265 _n._

“Right to exist, the,” 607 _n._

“Right to the whole produce of labour, the,” 607 _n._

“Right to work, the,” 300, 301, 303, 319, 599, 607 _n._

Rist, C., 172, 342 _n._, 423 _n._, 539 _n._

Rivière, Mercier de la, one of the Physiocrats, 3 _n._, 5; on the social order, 7; on the “natural order,” 8 _n._-9 _n._, 9, 10 _n._, 11; and the origin of the term _laissez-faire_, 11 _n._; on the creation of value, 13 _and n._; on property as a “divine” institution, 21; on the landed proprietor, 23 _n._; on property as the parent of social institutions, 25; on the regard to be paid to the peasants, 26 _n._; on the fallacy that wealth grows from foreign trade, 28; on freedom of trade, 29 _n._-30 _n._; on the balance of trade theory, 31; on reciprocity, 31; on laws, 34 _n._; and Catherine the Great, 34; on despotism, 35 _n._; on taxation, 40 _n._; on the relation of expenditure to production, 42 _n._; on the felicity following on the establishment of the “natural order,” 46 _n._; 232

Rochdale Pioneers, 263 _n._, 243, 244, 605

Rodbertus, J. K., 73 _n._; and Sismondi, 198; and the products of labour, 293 _n._; 294, 316; on the relative returns of capital and labour, 341 _n._-342 _n._; 369; and State Socialism, 414-415, 428, 431; and Lassalle, 414-415, 416, 417, 433, 434; French origin of his ideas, 415, 416, 423; his works, 415 _n._-416 _n._; his political and economic views, 416-417; his social theory, 417-432, 590; and the State, 261, 418, 429-430, 441; and production, 419-421, 423, 430; and the utilisation of the means of production, 421; and distribution, 421-428, 430-431; and labour’s share of the national product, 425-426, 427; and the “brazen law,” 426; his theory of crises, 426-427; and the regulation of national production and distribution, 427-429; and the State and economic functions, 430-431; the State Socialists and his doctrine, 430; 437, 443, 448 _n._, 450, 475; and Professor Schäffle, 590 _n._

Rodrigues, E., 211, 212

Rodrigues, O., 203, 204 _n._, 211

Rogers, Thorold, 52 _n._

Roscher, W., 106 _n._, 196, 379 _and n._, 380 _n._; founder of the Historical school, 381-383; 389, 400 _n._, 402

Rossi, P., 315 _n._, 352, 375, 379

Roubaud, the Abbé—_see_ Baden, Margrave of

Round, J. H., vi

Rousiers, P. de, 495 _n._

Rousseau, J. J., 1; and the Physiocrats, 6 _n._; and the natural state compared with the social state, 7; 120 _n._; and private property, 200 _n._; 238 _n._, 596

Royal Economic Society, 506 _n._

“Rural economy,” 2, 3 _n._, 5

Ruskin, John, 196, 251, 510 _and n._, 511-513

Rutten, Father, 498 _n._

Sabotage, 481 _n._

Sadler, Michael, 67

Saint-Leon, M., 500 _n._

St. Paul, 588

Saint-Simon, C. H., and Fourier, 201 _n._; quality of his socialism, 201-202; his career, 202-203; his works, 203 _n._; his earlier philosophic system, 203; his economic ideas, 204; his “Parable,” 204-205; on the future of the industrial classes, 205 _n._; on industry, 205 _n._; and the new industrial system, 205-211, 224; and socialism, 209-211; the Saint-Simonians and their doctrine, 211-231; and capital, 214; and A. Comte’s theory of the three estates, 222; and history, 224; on politics, 225 _n._; on philanthropy in social reorganisation, 225 _n._; Engels on, 228; and private property, 217; 233, 256; and Protection, 265 _n._; 290, 300; Proudhon and, 311 _n._; 318, 323, 352, 402, 404, 405; Rodbertus and, 418; 450, 470, 475, 486

Saint-Simonians, the, 169, 184; and Sismondi, 193; and the equalitarians, 200 _n._-201 _n._; and their socialist contemporaries, 201 _n._; and collectivism, 201, 202, 211, 218-220; their doctrine, 202, 213-225; and governmental control, 207 _n._; the development of their doctrine from Saint-Simon’s, 211; earliest members of the school, 211; organisation of the school, 211-212; Enfantine and the downfall of the school, 212-213; and private property, 199-202, 213-225, 294 _n._; and “exploitation,” 215-216; and production, 217-218, 226-227; and inheritance, 217-218; and the historical method in the criticism of private property, 221-224; their socialism, 225, 230 _n._; part played by members of the school in practical economic administration, 226; and banks and credit, 226; influence upon the socialists, 227; and distribution, 229; and the general and particular interest, 229-230; on the disadvantages of the spontaneous economic forces, 230; and profits and wages, 216 _n._; and value, 216; compared with the Associationists, 231; Fourier on, 245; and Protection, 265 _n._; and the State, 289 _n._; List and, 289 _n._; 293; Proudhon and, 296; 297; Stuart Mill and, 367, 372; 378, 381, 415 _and n._; Rodbertus and, 421, 423; 465 _n._; and class antagonism, 471 _n._; and the confiscation of rent, 562

Saint-Simonism, 112; Fourier and, 201 _n._; 212, 219, 254, 255

Sainte-Beuve, and Sismondi, 193; and Proudhon, 292, 295 _n._, 298 _n._

Sand, George, 263

Sangnier, M., 496, 502 _n._

Sartorius, G. F., 106

Saumaise, C., 503 _n._

Savigny, F. K. von, 382

Saving, Adam Smith on, 73

Sax, Professor, 522 _n._

Saxony, 281 _n._

Say, J. B., xii, 34 _n._; and production, 56 _n._; and capital, 56; and productive and unproductive works, 62, 348 _n._; and the _entrepreneur_, 65 _n._, 113-114, 550 _n._; 70; on Adam Smith’s theory of distribution, 80; and distribution, 93, 113-114, 422; on the loss of England’s American colonies, 103-104; on the _Wealth of Nations_, 106; and Adam Smith’s doctrines, 107-117; his career, 107 _n._; and the Physiocrats, 108-109; and political economy, 110-111, 175, 178; on machinery, 112, 181; and rent, 114-115, 551, 554 _n._, 555 _n._, 556; his theory of markets, 115; and over-production crises, 115-117, 192; correspondence with Ricardo, 139 _n._; 148; on the poverty of the English worker, 171; Sismondi and, 175, 177, 178, 181; and the relative poverty of industrial society, 193; 201 _n._, 207; Saint-Simon and, 209 _n._, 210 _n._; 228; and property, 228; 264, 265 _n._; List and, 269 _n._; 279 _n._, 280, 287, 298, 311 _n._; and anarchy, 311 _n._; 314, 322, 328 _n._, 335 _n._, 336 _n._, 352 _n._, 353, 375, 379, 390, 425, 615 _n._, 645

Say, Louis, 107 _n._, 265 _n._

“Scarcity,” 521 _n._, 522 _n._

Schäffle, A., 438 _n._, 469, 556-557, 590 _n._

Schatz, A., 54 _n._, 357 _n._, 372 _n._

Schelle, M., 4 _n._, 11 _n._

Schmidt, Kaspar—_see_ Stirner, Max

Schmoller, G., 196, 379 _and n._, 383, 385-386, 389 _nn._, 393 _n._, 395, 397, 400, 403, 406 _n._, 407, 438, 443 _n._, 517, 647

Schönberg, G., 439

School of Social Science, 494

Schulze-Delitzsch, F. H., 376, 434 _and n._

Schumpeter, Herr, 547 _n._

Schuster, R., 323

Schweitzer, Herr, 434 _n._

Science, Bakunin and, 628-629

Seager, Professor H. R., 349 _n._

Secrétan, C., 560, 600 _n._

Seebohm, F., vi

Ségur-Lamoignon, M., 500 _n._

Seignobos, C., 405 _n._

Self-interest, Adam Smith on, as the mainspring of progress, 86-87, 88, 89, 92, 95, 393; 99; the Classical school and, 393-394; Wagner and, 394; Stuart Mill and, 394, 404, 411

Seligman, Professor, 349 _n._, 570 _n._

_Semaines Sociales_, 500 _n._

Senior, N. W., 109 _n._, 168, 349-351, 358, 362 _and n._, 371, 372, 379, 549, 551

Sensi, Signor, 555 _n._

Service, in Bastiat’s theory of value, 332-335; place of the term in economic terminology, 335

Service-value, Bastiat’s theory of, 332-335

Shaftesbury, Lord, 67; Robert Owen and, 237; and Christian Socialism, 486

Shaw, G. Bernard, 579 _n._, 580 _and n._, 583 _n._

Sidgwick, H., 329

Sillon, the, 502

Simiand, M., 388 _n._, 402 _n._, 538 _n._

Sismondi, S. de, x, 111, 116, 117, 169; life, 173 _n._; and political economy, 173, 174, 175, 178, 196, 198; and Adam Smith, 173, 174, 410; and Ricardo and J. B. Say, 174-175; and Malthus, 175; and the English Corn Laws, 175; and the abstract method in economics, 176 _and n._, 380; and production and over-production, 176-177, 178-182; and interest, 176 _n._; 192-193 _n._, 215; and distribution, 177-178, 185, 186, 198, 422, 443; and the Classical school, 179-182, 195-196; and machinery, 180-182; and competition, 182-184, 193 _n._, 198, 410; and socialism, 184-185; and the theory of the identity of individual and general interests, 185-186, 410; and the concentration of capital, 187-189; on the regulation of population by the revenue, 188-189; and economic crises, 187, 190-192, 426; and net and gross production, 189-190, 420; his reform projects, 192-197; the first of the Interventionists, 192; influence upon writers and movements in the nineteenth century, 195-196; influence upon his contemporaries, 196, 197; and State Socialism, 197; and the socialists, 196, 197-198; Marx’s debt to, 198; and private property, 198; and “exploitation,” 215, 216; 228 _n._, 230, 233, 256; on liberty, 262 _n._; 264; and Protection, 264 _n._-265 _n._; 289; Stuart Mill and, 367; and peasant proprietorship, 371 _n._; 377, 378, 415 _and n._; and production, 419, 421; 440, 450; and increment value, 453 _n._; 475; and guarantism, 599, 604; and Liberalism and political economy, 647

Slavery, Le Play and, 491 _n._

Smith, Adam, vi; on the object of political economy, 1; accredited the founder of political economy, 2, 50-51, 103; and Quesnay, 3, 55; Turgot resembles, 4 _n._, 47; and nature regarded as the only source of value, 16; on “sterile” labour, 17; his career, 50 _n._-52 _n._; his _Wealth of Nations_, 51 _et seq._, 105; intimate with David Hume, 50 _n._, 53; and the Physiocrats, 51 _n._, 55, 62-65, 69; his admiration for Voltaire, 52 _n._; and Bernard de Mandeville, 51; and Turgot, 55; and the _Tableau économique_, 55; and the division of labour, 56-68, 70-71; on labour as the true source of wealth, 56-57; and taxation, 61-62; on equality in the State, 62; and productive and unproductive workers, 62-63; and the superior productivity of agriculture, 63-64, 65, 67, 108, 143; and rent, 64, 80, 141-143; and industry, 65-66, 67-68; his sympathy for the worker, 66-67; on profits, 67-80, 114; his “naturalism,” 68-88; and the spontaneity of economic institutions, 69-88; and money, 71, 82-85, 115; and capital, 71-73, 89-91, 272 _n._; on saving, 73; on demand and supply, 73-85; his theory of prices, 74-82; on “value in use” and “value in exchange,” 75-77; on labour as the measure of value, 77-78, 149; and cost of production as the determinant of value, 78-79; his theory of wages, 80; and distribution, 80, 93; on the regulation of population to the demand, 82, 188; on banks, 85; on self-interest as the root of all economic activity, 86-87, 88, 393; and the _homo œconomicus_, 86; and the “spontaneous order,” 87-88; on Quesnay’s economic theory, 88; his “optimism,” 88-93; and the harmony between self-interest and the general well-being of society, 92, 185, 410; on the duty of the sovereign, 93, 94, 409; and economic liberty, 93-97, 315; on the inefficiency of State administration, 94-95; and Mercantilism, 98, 169, 314; and international trade, 97-102; and Protection, 98-102; influence of his thought, and its diffusion, 102-107; and Lord North, 105; and Pitt, 105; J. B. Say and, 107-118; on the basis and the aim of political economy, 110; and the _entrepreneur_, 114; and Malthus’s _Principles of Population_, 121; compared with Ricardo, 138; and the products of mines, 143 _n._; and the interests of the landlords, 153 _n._; and Free Trade, 153, 163, 287; 165, 166; Sismondi and, 173, 174, 192; on competition, 182; and high wages and population, 189; 201 _n._, 204, 207; Saint-Simon and, 209 _n._; on government, 217, 625; 228; and property, 228; 264; on the Act of Union of 1800, 266; List and, 269 _n._, 270, 271 _n._, 273, 278 _n._, 279 _n._, 280; and the three stages in economic evolution, 271 _n._; on national power, 271 _n._; 272; on moral forces, 273 _n._; on the prosperity of Britain as the outcome of her legal system, 273 _n._; 322, 323, 326, 338 _n._, 355 _n._, 371, 379, 380 _and n._, 390; and State intervention, 408-410; and _laissez-faire_, 408, 410; 416, 417, 418, 423, 438 _n._, 440, 516; Mr. and Mrs. Webb on his theory that labour is the cause of value, 581 _n._; 588, 615 _n._; simplicity of his system, 644

Smith, Prince, 376, 439

“Smithianismus,” 438

Social biology, 590 _n._

Social Catholicism, 495-503; and co-operation, 496-500; and the emancipation of the workers by themselves, 500; and the State, 501; and Protection, 501 _n._; and socialism, 501; and the employer and the worker, 502; compared with Social Protestantism, 503

Social Catholics, 494

Social Christianity, 509

Social contract, the, 6 _n._

Social Democratic Federation, 579 _n._

Social Democratic party, German, Rodbertus and, 417; 432; founded, 437; 480 _n._

Social economics, 1, 181, 645

“Social function,” 335

“Social instinct,” the, 632; Kropotkin on, 632-633

Social League of Buyers, 500 _n._

Social Protestantism—_see_ Christian Socialism

“Social workshops,” Blanc and, 301

Socialism, xi; Adam Smith regarded as the father of, 79 _n._; Adam Smith a forerunner of, 92; Ricardo’s theory of value the starting-point of modern, 138; the Marxian theory of surplus value and, 140; and the French Revolution, 199 _n._-200 _n._; equalitarian, 200 _n._; the Saint-Simonians and, 200 _n._-201 _n._, 212, 225, 227, 230 _n._, 231; Saint-Simon and, 201, 202, 209, 210 _n._; Saint-Simon the father of, 203; Robert Owen and, 235; origin of the term, 235 _n._, 263 _and n._; Wm. Thompson and, 244; Leroux and, 263; Proudhon and, 290-291, 296-299, 315; and the Revolution of 1848, 300-307; Marx and, 320, 470; France the classic land of, 323; Bastiat and, 328 _n._, 329; Stuart Mill and, 352 _n._, 353, 358; the Liberal school and, 354; Reybaud on, 354; revival of, 377; Marx’s _Kapital_ and, 377; Rodbertus and, 417; State Socialism and, 431; Lassalle and, 433; the Christian schools and, 483-485; the Social Catholics and, 500; the Sillon and, 502; the Christian Socialists and, 509; modern changes in, 515-516; in England in mid-nineteenth century, 579; of the Fabian Society, vii, 580 _n._-581 _n._, 584-587; Sidney Webb on the present realisation of, 585; “juridical socialism,” 606, 607 _n._; criticism of solidarity, 611; anarchism and, 640, 641; and violence, 641; and the State and private property, 642

Socialists, favour Adam Smith’s theory of value, 75; Sismondi reckoned among, 184; Saint-Simon reckoned among, 210 _n._; Proudhon and, 296-297; and the Revolution of 1848, 300; 335; and State Socialism, 414; Rodbertus and, 417; and capital, 459-460; F. D. Maurice on the motto of the socialist, 504 _n._; and interest and rent, 568, 579

Society, the reality of, 618, 619 _n._; Kropotkin on, 625 _n._, 630, 631 _n._; Bakunin on, 625 _n._-626 _n._, 630, 631 _n._; the anarchist conception of, 629-636; Proudhon and, 630, 631 _n._; Jean Grave and, 630, 631 _n._; and government, 631

Sociological analogy, the, 590-591

Sociology, 388, 392, 404, 590

Solidarity, xv; in France, 136 _n._, 516; Protection and, 289 _n._, 602; Proudhon and, 317; the Liberal school and, 325; Bastiat and the law of, 344-345; origin of the term, 344 _n._, 587; modern conception of, 344; Carey and, 345; and individualism, 356 _n._; State Socialism and, 439, 592, 601, 602-603; Le Play’s new school and, 495; Gounelle on, 508 _n._; the Christian Socialists and, 508; development of the ideal, 587; the ancients and, 588-589; heredity and, 588; A. Comte and, 589; bacteriology and, 589; the sociological analogy and, 590-591; growth and universality of, 591-592; the Solidarity school, 592 _n._-593 _n._; Gide on, 593 _n._; a new watchword, 593; M. Bourgeois and, 593-594, 596, 597-599; and natural solidarity, 594-599; progress of the movement, 593-594; Durkheim and, 599-600; a movement towards universal unity, 600-601; practical applications of, 601-607; fiscal reform and, 602; and association, 602, 613-614; the syndicalists and, 603; the mutualists and, 603-604; and co-operation, 604; the École de Nîmes, 605 _n._; and the mutual credit society, 606; and private property, 606; and jurisprudence, 606; criticism of, 607-614; the Liberal school and, 607-608; evolution and, 609; and collective responsibility for misdemeanour, 610; the moralists and, 610-611; socialist criticism, 611; its moral influence, 611-612; and individuality, 612-613; and exchange, 613-614; distinguished from charity, 614 _n._; the anarchists and social solidarity, 630; 632

Solidarist, or Solidarity, school, 592 _n._-593 _n._, 601

Solvay, E., 242, 318-319

Sombart, W., 271 _n._, 386

Sorel, G., 209, 321, 447-448, 466 _nn._, 467 _n._, 473 _n._, 474 _n._, 479 _nn._, 480 _n._, 481 _nn._, 482 _and nn._, 483, 515, 638 _n._, 641, 642

Souchon, A., xi

Sovereign, the, Adam Smith on, 93, 94, 409

_Sozialpolitik_, 178

Spain, anarchism in, 640

Spence, T., 560 _and n._

Spencer, Herbert, xiii. 356, 376, 560, 590 _nn._

Spontaneity of economic institutions, Adam Smith and, 68-85, 87, 88, 89

Staël, Mme., 173 _n._

Stangeland, C. E., 121 _n._

Stanislaus II, King of Poland, and the Physiocrats, 5

State, the, in the Mercantilist view, 27; in the Physiocratic view, 27; the functions of, in the Physiocratic doctrine, 33-37; Adam Smith on the functions of, 95; the sole inheritor of property, in the Saint-Simonians’ system, 223; Blanc and, 261, 262; Dupont-White and, 408 _n._, 440, 441; Walras and, 413; Rodbertus and, 418-419, 429-431; Hegel on, 435 _n._; Fichte and, 435 _n._-436 _n._; the Congress of Eisenach and, 437; Wagner and, 438 _n._, 439-440; the duties of, under State Socialism, 439; incapacity of, as an economic agent, 439; and the individual, 442-443; the Christian schools and, 484; Le Play and, 488; the Social Catholics and, 501; Carlyle on the Classical ideal, 511; the anarchists and, 615, 623-624, 625, 626, 627, 630, 641; syndicalism and, 641

State intervention, xv, 407 _et seq._; Adam Smith and, 94-97, 408-410; Malthus and Ricardo and, 164; Sismondi and, 197, 413; the French Liberal school and, 325; Bastiat and, 325 _n._, 408-409; 377, 378; Stuart Mill and, 411, 413; Cournot and, 413; Lassalle and, 434-435; Kingsley on, 505 _n._ _See_ State Socialism

State Socialism, xi, xv, 197, 221, 259, 261, 262, 304-305, 346, 377, 387, 389 _n._, 407; origin of, 410, 413, 438; not simply an economic doctrine, 414; Rodbertus and, 414-415, 417, 428, 431, 432; Lassalle and, 414, 432; Wagner and, 414; and socialism, 431; Andler and the philosophical origin of, 435 _n._; Fichte and, 435 _n._; principles and characteristics of the movement, 436-448; and the Classical school, 438; and solidarity and Lassalle, 439; and government and the individual, 439-443; and distribution, 443-444; and production, 444; Bismarck and, 445; in Germany, 445-446; influence in politics, 447; and economic Liberalism, 447; syndicalism and, 447-448; the Christian schools and, 485; and economic theory, 515; modern development of, 516; the Fabians and, 586; 592, 593 _n._; and solidarity, 601, 602-603

Stationary state, Stuart Mill and, 373-374

Statistics, the science of, and economics, 407 _n._; 645-646

Statute of Apprentices, the, 104, 170

_Statutes of the International Brotherhood_, 639

_Statutes of the International Socialist Alliance_, 639

Stein, H. F. K., 106 _n._

Stein, L. von, 294 _n._

“Sterile classes,” the, in the Physiocratic system, 14, 21, 24; Adam Smith and, 57

Sterile labour, in the Physiocratic system, 16-17

Stewart, Dugald, 52 _n._

Stiegler, M., 592 _n._

Stirner, Max (Kaspar Schmidt), 615-619, 622-623, 628, 630

Stöker, Pastor, 507

Storch, H. F. von, 118 _n._, 379

Strong, J., 506 _n._

Stumm, Baron, 507 _n._

Sully, Duc de, 17

Supply, price and, 519

Surplus labour, Marx’s theory of, 450-459, 474-475

Surplus value, Marx’s theory of, 184, 198, 228, 294, 450-459; Sismondi and, 184-185, 198, 475; decline of the theory of, 516

Surplus values, the taxation of, 569-570

Switzerland, Christian Socialism in, 507

Syndicalism, 321, 447, 448, 472 _n._, 473, 479-483, 491; the Social Catholics and, 498 _and n._; the Sillon and the C.G.T. and, 502; and solidarity, 603; and anarchism, 619 _n._, 641-642; and the State, 641-642; its ideal, 642

_Syndicat_, the, 480-481

Synthetic socialism, 573

Syntheticism, 573

_Tableau économique_, 3 _n._, 5, 18-19, 20 _n._, 21, 162, 534

Taillandier, Saint-René, 616 _n._

Tariffs, in France, 266, 269, 280-281; in Germany, 266-269, 280-281; in the United States, 269; the economic nature of, 282

Taxation, the Physiocratic theory of, 38-45; Adam Smith and, 61-62 _and nn._, 102; development of the theory of, 645

Theory, economic, recent revival of, 515

Thierry, A., 203, 211

Thiers, L. A., 303

Thomas, É., 302 _and n._

Thomas, P. F., 263 _n._

Thompson, R., 156 _n._

Thompson, W., 194, 201 _n._, 244, 450 _n._

Thornton, W. T., 361, 371 _n._

Thünen, J. H. von, 148 _n._, 352, 558

Tocqueville, A. C. de, 303

Todt, Pastor, 507

Tolstoy, Count Leo, 510, 511, 512, 513-514

Tooke, T., 109 _n._

Torrens, Colonel, 349 _n._

Tourville, the Abbé de, 494, 495 _n._

Toynbee, A., 196, 374, 379, 386 _n._, 387

Trade, the Physiocrats and, 27-33

Trade, Free—_see_ Free Trade

Trade unionism, Robert Owen and, 236 _n._; Stuart Mill and, 361, 362 _n._; the Neo-Marxians and, 479; Le Play and, 491; 496 _n._, 504; Durkheim and, 600; the syndicalists and, 603, 642; the French anarchists and, 640

Travail, Le, co-operative society, 257 _n._

Treitschke, H. G. von, 443 _n._

Trosne, G. F. Le, one of the Physiocrats, 4 _n._; on the earth as the sole productive source, 12 _n._, 13; and the “net product,” 14 _n._, 15 _n._; on the _Tableau économique_, 19; on exchange, 27 _n._; on Free Trade, 29 _n._; 49, 118 _n._

Trusts, Ollivier on, 325

Tucker, J., 54

Turgot, A. R. J., one of the Physiocrats, 4 _and n._; on the universality and immutability of the “natural order,” 10; and the origin of the term _laissez-faire_, 11 _n._; 12 _n._; on artisans and agriculturists, 14 _and n._; on mines and the “net product,” 14; on the circulation of wealth, 18; and the _Tableau économique_, 20 _n._; and property, 25 _n._; on the “good price,” 30 _n._; on Protection, 31 _n._; and the edict establishing Free Trade in corn, 32; and interest, 33, 50 _n._; distinguished from the other Physiocrats, 33, 46-47; on industry and agriculture, 37 _n._; on the burdens of the poor, 42 _n._; and the “iron law,” 42, 157, 453 _n._; on value, 46-47; and Condillac and Galiani, 47; 50; acquainted with Adam Smith, 51 _n._, 55; 117; and the law of diminishing returns, 146-147 _n._, 340; 222 _n._, 228 _n._, 298

“Unearned increment,” rent is, 545; the confiscation of, 558-570

United States, xii; increase of population in, 124 _n._; growth of _per capita_ wealth of the population in, 131; and tariffs and Protection, 269, 278-279; List on the economic condition of, 279; cultivation and rents in, 339; Christian Socialism in, 506

Unity, the movement towards universal, 600

University economists, 436

Ure, A., 171 _n._

Usury, the Catholic Church and, 503 _n._

Utilitarian Radicals, 586

Utilitarian school, 352

Utility, social, 24, 91; Dunoyer and, 348 _and n._

Utility theory, 328 _n._; Bastiat and, 335-338

Utopia, More’s, 246

Utopian socialism, 232

Value, the accretion of, constitutes production, 16; nature the only source of, 16; the Physiocrats and, 46, 49; Turgot on, 46-47; Galiani on, 47; Condillac and, 48-49, 74, 75; Adam Smith’s theory of, 74-80, 149; Ricardo’s theory of, 138, 140-141, 149-151, 240, 332; Sismondi and, 184-185; Marx and, 185, 293 _n._, 466 _and n._, 474, 583; Marx’s theory of surplus value, 184, 450-459; Proudhon and, 293 _n._; Bastiat’s theory of service-value, 332-335, 338; Carey and, 332; Ferrara and, 333 _n._; in Bastiat’s utility theory, 335-338; the Classical law of, 360, 558; Rodbertus and, 415 _n._; Aristotle and, 451 _n._; determined by cost of production, 520, 526; definition of, 523; the Classical school and, 530 _n._; the Mathematical school and, 530 _n._; Aupetit and, 530 _n._

“Value in use,” and “value in exchange,” 75-76, 451

Value, surplus—_see_ Surplus value

Vandervelde, É., 221, 470 _n._

Varlin, M., 459 _n._

_Verein für Sozialpolitik_, 437

Vidal, F., 259, 304-305, 414, 420 _n._

Villeneuve-Bargemont, Vicomte A. de, 197

Villermé, L. R., 171, 491 _n._

Villey, E., 327 _n._

Vinet, A. R., 509

Voltaire, and the Physiocrats, 5; 32; his _L’Homme avec Quarante Écus_, 41 _n._; 43; Adam Smith and, 51 _n._; 52 _n._

Wage fund theory, Stuart Mill and, 361-362, 374; Walker and, 362 _n._, 549; Cairnes and, 374; 456

Wages, the Physiocrats and, 43; Condillac on, 49-50; Adam Smith on the relation of, to rent, 64 _n._; Smith’s theory of, 80; Ricardo and, 114, 157-163; Sismondi and, 176 _n._; Stuart Mill and, 360 _n._, 369-370; 353; the law of, of the Classical School, 360-362; Cobden on, 360-361; the “brazen law” of, 361, 426, 433, 453 _n._, 528; Böhm-Bawerk and the Classical school and, 520; final utility and, 527-528; the productivity theory of, 527-528, 549-550; the Hedonists and, 541; relation of, to profit, 550-551; and interest, Henry George on, 565; relation of, to the increase in rents, 566 _and n._

Wagner, A., 222, 393 _n._, 394, 396 _nn._, 401 _n._, 403, 414, 416, 431 _n._, 433 _n._; and State Socialism, 438 _and n._, 439, 440-441, 443 _n._, 444; and the State and the individual, 442

Wakefield, Gibbon, 349 _n._

Walker, A., 550 _n._

Walker, F., 362 _n._, 549-552

Wallace, A. R., and land nationalisation, 561, 577

Wallas, Graham, 159 _n._

Walras, L., on Free Trade, 30; 75; J. B. Say and, 114; and land nationalisation, 155, 561, 571, 572 _n._, 573-577; and “scarcity,” 351; 521 _n._, 522 _n._; 376, 380, 392 _and n._; on the State, 413; 495, 529 _n._; his economic system, 533-536, 541-542; 537, 538 _n._, 540 _n._, 544; and rent and profit, 552; and the individual and the State, 573-574; and the confiscation of rent, 574-577; 631 _n._

War of Independence, American, 103-104, 202

Waring, Colonel, 253 _n._

Watt, James, 65

Wealth, the Physiocratic conception of the circulation of, 18-26; a material element, in the Physiocratic view, 27; Quesnay regards agriculture as the source of all, 56; Adam Smith’s view of the origin of, 56-57; Adam Smith on, 83; solely a product of the soil, in the Physiocratic view, 348

_Wealth of Nations_, 51 _et seq._, 353

Webb, Mr. and Mrs. Sidney, 170, 221, 387, 580, 581, 583, 584, 585, 586

Weber, Max, 381 _n._

Weill, G., 202 _n._, 203 _n._, 226 _n._

Weitling, W., 323

Wellington, Duke of, 366

Wells, H. G., 580

West, Sir E., 147 _n._, 149 _n._

Weulersse, G., 5 _n._, 22 _n._, 26 _n._

Wieser, F. von, 522 _n._

William II, Emperor of Germany, 446, 507

Wilson, G., 96 _n._

Wirth, M., 416 _n._, 417 _n._

Wollemborg, 503 _n._

Wolowski, L., 304

Woman question, Saint-Simonism and, 254; Fourier and, 254

“Working men’s associations,” 305-306, 319

Worms, R., 590 _n._

Würtemberg, Tariff Union between Bavaria and, 268

Young, A., 136 _n._, 371

Yule, Udny, 407 _n._

Zola, É., 254 _n._

Zollverein, formation of the, 268; 280

_Zollvereinsblatt_, 280 _n._, 288