Part 5

=19.= Likewise =e= remains in disyllables where it is preceded by =ht=, or by any two consonants of which the last is not =t= or =s=: =tähte=, _star_, and =lehte=, _leaf_, form =tähteä= and =lehteä=. =Onne=, _fortune_, and =hanhe=, _goose_, =onnea= and =hanhea=.

But =yksi=, _one_, and =kaksi=, _two_ (roots =yhte= and =kahte=), form =yhtä= and =kahta= for =yhttä=, =kahtta=. =Lumi=, _snow_, is also an exception and forms =lunta=. Also the verbal stems =teke= and =näke=: infinitive, =tehdä=, =nähdä=.

=20.= In polysyllabic words the =e= is always suppressed: root =kysymykse=, _a question_, partitive case, =kysymystä= for =kysymykstä=.

=I.=

=21.= (1) When =i= at the end of substantives meets the =i= of the plural, the first =i= changes into =e=, =risti=, _cross_, =risteissä=. This rule is however not always observed, and forms like =ristissä= are used for the plural. But in other cases, when two =i=’s meet, the first falls out, pres. =etsivät=, imp. =etsivät=, not =etsiivät=. In old Finnish, words like =etseivät= are found.

=22.= (2) When =i= (generally owing to the dropping of a consonant) is found between two vowels it becomes =j=. =Kaloia= becomes =kaloja=.

=23.= All these four vowels, =a=, =ä=, =e=, and =i=, are rejected before the =-i= of the terminations of the superlative: =vanha=, _old_, =selkeä=, _bright_, =suure=, _great_, =auli=, _liberal_, make in the superlative =vanhin=, =selkein=, =suurin=, =aulin=.

B. _Changes of Consonants._

=24.= A word cannot end with more than one consonant. If the rejection of a final vowel leaves two consonants at the end of a word, one is rejected, usually the first, e.g. =Lupaukse=, _a promise_. By rule =16=, =e= is rejected in the nominative sing., and there remains =lupauks=, which becomes =lupaus=. But if the second consonant is not one of those allowed to end a word by rule =2=, it is rejected and the first only kept. =Suurimpi= becomes =suurimp=, and as =p= is not a possible final letter, =m= is kept, and by rule =46= (below) becomes =n=, =suurin=.

THE SOFTENING OF THE HARD CONSONANTS =K=, =T=, =P=.

General rule: Whenever one of the three hard consonants, =k=, =t=, =p=, is found at the beginning of a naturally short and open syllable (that is, one ending in a simple vowel) which becomes closed (that is, ends in a consonant) owing to the addition of a suffix, then the hard consonant is softened or rejected[6].

It must be observed that some syllables which are apparently open are treated in grammar as being closed, because they end with the aspiration. This aspiration, though hardly heard except in dialects, generally represents an original consonant (_v._ the rules respecting the formation of the Imperative, Infinitives I and II, and passive).

This curious rule of the softening of consonants pervades the whole Finnish language and is one of its distinguishing features. The addition of a final letter to a syllable necessitates a certain effort in order to sound it accurately, and in order to compensate for the difficulty thus added at the end the pronunciation of the first letter is made easier. It is indeed clear that it is easier to say =kukan= than =kukkan=, if both =k=’s are carefully pronounced; but an English mouth does not find it easier to say =revin= than =repin=. But it must be remembered that the Finnish language is extraordinarily susceptible in regard to consonants. Mouths which are incapable of pronouncing two consonants at the beginning of a word must have to struggle with difficulties in pronunciation which we are quite incapable of understanding. It must also be remembered that simple consonants are pronounced exceedingly lightly, so that their disappearance is easier than it would be, were they sounded as strongly as in our language.

=K.=

=25.= (1) =kk= becomes =k=. That is to say, when the final syllable of =kukka=, _flower_, becomes closed by the addition of =n=, one of the =k=’s is dropped, and we have =kukan= for =kukkan=. So =kirkko=, =kirkossa=.

=26.= (2) =nk= becomes =ng=. =Aurinko=, _sun_, forms the genitive =auringon=. =Kaupunki=, _town_, =kaupungin=.

=27.= (3) =lk=, =rk= become simply =l=, =r=, but if followed by =e=, =lj=, =rj=. For example, =jalka=, _a foot_, genitive =jalan=; =märkä=, _wet_, genitive =märän=; =kulke=, _leave_, =kuljen=, _I leave_; =särke=, _break_, =särjen=, _I break_.

=hk= generally becomes simply =h=, but may remain unchanged; =tuhka=, _ash_, genitive =tuhan=, but sometimes =tuhkan=; =sähkö=, _electricity_, genitive =sähön=. In old Finnish such forms as =tuhvan= are found.

=28.= (4) Between two vowels =k= generally is lost altogether when the syllable is closed; =tako=, _forge_, =taon=, _I forge_; =vika=, _a fault_, genitive =vian=.

If the =k= is preceded by a diphthong ending in =i= or by simple =i=, a =j= is developed when =k= falls out: thus =aika=, _time_, =poika=, _boy_, =ikä=, _life_, make =ajan=, =pojan=, =ijän=. Similarly when =k= falls out between two =u=’s or two =y=’s, a =v= is developed, at any rate in pronunciation. The orthography varies between =uu= and =uvu=, but the latter is generally adopted when there is any ambiguity, e.g. =puvun=, from =puku=, _clothes_, not =puun=, because this is liable to be confused with =puun=, the genitive of =puu=, _a tree_; =suvun= from =suku=, _a family_; but =suun= from =sun=, _a month_; =luvun= from =luku=, _a number_, but =luun= from =luu=, _a bone_.

=29.= (5) =sk=, =tk= remain unchanged, =lasku=, =laskun=, =itku=, =itkun=.

=T.=

=30.= (1) =tt= becomes =t=, =opetta=, _teach_, =opetan=, _I teach_.

=31.= (2) =lt=, =rt=, =nt= become =ll=, =rr=, =nn=. =Pelto=, _field_, =pellon=; =parta=, _beard_, =parran=; =kanta=, _base_, =kannan=.

=32.= (3) After a vowel or =h=, =t= becomes =d=. =Pata=, _pot_, =padan=; =tahto=, _wish_, =tahdon=[7].

=P.=

=33.= (1) =pp= becomes =p=. =Pappi=, _priest_, =papin=.

=34.= (2) =mp= becomes =mm=, stem =kovempa=, _harder_, =kovemman=.

=35.= (3) In other cases =p= becomes =v=. =Lepo=, _rest_, =levon=; =repi=, _tear_, =revin=; =halpa=, _cheap_, =halvan=.

=36.= N.B.—This softening of =k=, =t=, =p=, takes place if in a polysyllabic radical one of them is the first letter of a syllable whose vowel forms a diphthong with the =i= of the plural. =Harakka=, _magpie_, =harakoita=; =aurinko=, =auringoita=, _sun_; =palkinto=, =palkinnoita=, _reward_.

These rules for the weakening of consonants are rigorously observed throughout the language, with the one exception that the addition of the pronominal suffixes produces no change in a word. Though =tapa + n= becomes =tavan=, =tapa + nsa= remains =tapansa=.

OTHER CHANGES OF CONSONANTS.

=T=, meeting with the vowel =i=, under certain circumstances becomes =s=.

=37.= =T= in the last syllable of a word, when preceded by a vowel or by =l=, =n=, =r=, becomes =s= when a final =e= is rejected or changed into =i=. E.g. in the nominative of the root =vete=, _water_, the final =e= becomes =i= by rule, and =t= changes to =s=, forming =vesi=. Similarly when the final =e= of =hyvyyte=, _goodness_, is rejected =t= becomes =s=, forming the nominative =hyvyys=; so also =jälte= becomes =jälsi=, and =varte=, =varsi=.

=38.= =T= also becomes =s= before =i= in the plural of ordinal numbers whose stem ends in =-nte=. E.g. the essive singular of stem =neljänte=, _fourth_, is =neljäntenä=; in the plural the corresponding case is =neljänsinä=, for =neljäntinä=.

=39.= The plural of stems ending in =-ute=, =-yte=, forms the essive and other analogous cases from a stem ending in =-ksi=. =Suuruus=, _greatness_, has for the sing. the stem =suuruute= (e.g. essive =suuruutena=), but forms in the plur. =suuruuksina=, etc. So also from =hyvyyte=, _goodness_, comes from the sing. =hyvyytenä=, and the plur. =hyvyyksinä=.

=40.= =T= in the last syllable of a verb, preceded by a double vowel or =l=, =n=, =r=, changes to =s= before the =i= of the imperf., the vowels =a=, =ä= being suppressed. Thus from =pyytää=, _to ask_, comes =pyysi= (for =pyytäi=); from =taitaa=, _can_, =taisi=. But =pitää=, _to hold_, makes =piti=, because this vowel is simple.

=Nousee=, _he arises_, forms the imperfect =nousi=, but =noutaa=, _he brings_, makes =nouti=, to distinguish it from the other. Similarly =kyntää=, _to plough_, generally forms its imperfect =kynti=, to distinguish it from the same tense of =kynsiä=, _to scratch_.

In poetry forms like =kielti=, for =kielsi=, are found, and in the ordinary language a number of verbs which should by the above rule form the imperfect in =si=, either keep =ti=, as =hoiti= (=hoitaa=, _to look after_), =jouti= (=joutaa=, _to have time_), or have alternative forms, =hääti= or =hääsi= (=häätää=, _to keep off_), =sääti= or =sääsi= (=säätää=, _to place_), =kiiti= or =kiisi= (from =kiitää=, _to hasten_), =hyyti= or =hyysi= (=hyytää=, _to freeze_), =syyti= or =syysi= (=syytää=, _throw out_), =sieti= or =siesi= (=sietää=, _to bear_), =jäyti= or =jäysi= (=jäytää=, _to gnaw_).

=T= always becomes =s= in the imperfect of contracted verbs, =lupata=, _to promise_, pres. =lupaan=, impf. =lupasin=.

The combination =ts= is pronounced in dialects as =tt= or =ht=; e.g. =metsä=, _a forest_, appears as =mettä= or =mehtä=.

=41.= =K= before =t=, =d=, =n= becomes =h=. E.g. from the root =teke=, whose final vowel is liable to be rejected, come =tehtiin=, =tehdään=, =tehnen=, and also =tehkää=.

=42.= But =h= before =s= becomes =k=. Thus the stems =yhte=, _one_, =kahte=, _two_, =haahte=, _a ship_, form the nominatives =yksi=, =kaksi=, =haaksi=, =te= becoming =si= by the rules previously given, and =h= changing to =k=.

=43.= In contracted words (_v._ page 18) =h=, when left as a final letter, becomes =s=, =t=, or the aspiration. Stem =vieraha=, nominative =vieras=, for =vierah=; stem =kevähä=, nominative =kevät=, for =kevähä=; stem =venehe=, nominative =veneʻ=, for =venehe=.

Though the above rules are given as being convenient for grammatical purposes, there is no doubt that in all these cases =h= is a weakening of some other letter; indeed, there is reason to think it is never original in Finnish. =Vieras= represents an original =vierasa=, and the genitive =vierasan= is weakened into =vierahan= and =vieraan=. Similarly in =yksi=, =yhden=, the =k= is more primitive.

=44.= =N=, after =l=, =n=, =s=, is frequently, though not always, assimilated, especially in verbs. Thus =tul-nut=, =pur-nut=, =pes-nyt=, become =tullut=, =purrut=, =pessyt=.

=45.= In polysyllabic verbs =n= becomes =t= before =k= and =t=. Thus root =pakene= makes in the imperative =paetkaa= (for =pakenkaa=, which becomes first =paketkaa=) and infinitive =paeta=. (The steps are =pakenetaʻ=, =pakentaʻ=, =pakettaʻ=, =paettaʻ=, =paeta=.)

=46.= =M=, at the end of a word, always becomes =n=. Stem =avaime=, _a key_, nominative =avain=, for =avaim=. Similar is the formation of the nominatives of superlatives: =kovimpi= becomes =kovimp= by rejection of the final vowel, and then =kovim= (rule =24=), which changes to =kovin=.

=47.= =M= also becomes =n= before terminations beginning with =t= or =n=. Thus the stem =rahattoma=, _moneyless_, shortened to =rahatom=, makes =rahatonta= and =rahatonna= in the partitive and essive cases.

CONTRACTION.

When two vowels are found together from the loss of a consonant or other causes, they frequently become a long vowel or a diphthong. This phenomenon is called Contraction, and occurs frequently in Finnish. It can, like the loss of final vowels, be easily accounted for on phonetic grounds, if it be remembered that the tonic accent of a word is always on the first syllable, so that there is a natural tendency to drop or pronounce quickly syllables at the end of words.

This contraction is of two kinds:—

=48.= I. The first kind takes place when the vowels of the two final syllables of a word are the same, and the consonant between them (=h= in nouns or =t= in verbs) falls out. Thus, =vierahan= becomes =viera͡an= (two syllables); =lupatan=, =lupa͡an=; =tervehen=, =terve͡en=.

This form of contraction is universally employed in certain classes of nouns and verbs, the uncontracted forms being only found in poetry and the Karelian dialect.

=49.= II. The second kind is when the vowels of the last and penultimate syllables of a word meet, the last vowel being =a= or =ä=. Under these circumstances the assimilation of the second vowel to the first, and contraction of the two into one long vowel is admissible, but not obligatory, though it usually takes place if the first vowel is =o=, =e=, or =ö=. Thus =lankean= (_I fall_), =kokoan= (_I collect_), become =lankeen=, =kokoon=. But the contraction of =ia= or =ua= to =ii=, =uu= is rare.

Forms like =silee=, =ainoo= for =sileä=, =ainoa= are found in poetry. In prose this form of contraction is confined to verbs.

The contraction of two vowels into one long vowel or diphthong also occurs in adding the case suffixes:—

(1) The =a= or =ä= of the partitive sing. with the final vowel of roots ending in =a= or =ä= forms a long vowel, e.g. =jalka-a=, =leipä-ä= become =jalka͡a=, =leipä͡ä=.

(2) When the =e= of a termination becomes =i= after the final vowel of a root, this =i= forms a diphthong with that vowel, e.g. =korvaen= becomes =korva͡in=; and when the =i= of the plural meets with the final vowel of a root it forms a diphthong with it.

The point in all these cases is that, though no change takes place in writing, the two vowels form one syllable instead of two.

Vowels which meet from the disappearance of =k= are often contracted in pronunciation: =te͡en=, =nä͡in= from =teken=, =näkin=, are pronounced as one syllable.

NOUNS.

Finnish is called an agglutinative language; that is to say, the words, as they appear used in a sentence, are formed of roots, to which have been added certain terminations: thus =taloiltansa=, meaning _from his farms_, is made up from the root =talo=, and the suffixes =i= (a sign of the plural), =-lta= (giving the idea of from), and =-nsa= (his).

Every root in Finnish ends in a vowel or a diphthong.

In adding suffixes to a root the rules for the changes of letters must be carefully observed. The result of applying them is that from the original full root there may be produced three modifications:—

(1) The closed form. Root =vete=, _water_, closed form =veden=.

(2) The shortened form, =paimen= for =paimene=.

(3) A form both closed and shortened. =tantere=, nominative =tanner=.

_Declension._

The Finnish noun is declined by adding suffixes to the root, which undergoes any modifications required by the rules of Euphony.

There are fifteen cases, which, with the exception of the nominative, may be regarded as the noun followed by a preposition, or rather postposition. The Finnish word =maalta= corresponds to the English _from land_, only the _from_ is put after _land_, and the two are written as one word. =maalta= is analogous to such an expression as the Greek γῆς ἀπό, only that in this case we have both a case-form and a postposition. Most of the terminations have two forms, one with a hard, one with a soft vowel. Roots with hard vowels take the hard termination, those with soft, the soft ones. Thus we find =maa-ssa=, but =työ-ssä=.

These fifteen cases are as follow:—

(1) The _nominative_ has no suffix, though it does not always represent the pure root. In =maa=, _land_, the two are identical, but the roots =käte=, =vete=, =vieraha= produce the nominatives =käsi=, =vesi=, =vieras=.

(2) The _partitive_ is formed by the suffix =ta=, =tä= or =a=, =ä=. It may be roughly described as answering to a noun preceded in English by the word _some_, or in French by the partitive article. =Leipää=, _some bread_, _du pain_; =vettä=, _some water_, _de l’eau_.

(3) The _genitive_ is formed by the suffix =n=. =Puun=, _of the tree_.

The Finnish genitive really represents two cases, the genitive and accusative, which have become confused in one form.

(4) The _inessive_ expresses the place, in which anything takes place, and is formed with the suffix =-ssa=, =-ssä=. =Missä=, _where_ (_in what_); =kirkossa=, _in the church_.

(5) The _elative_ expresses the place from which motion takes place, and is formed with the suffix =-sta=, =-stä=. =Mistä=, _whence_ (_from what_); =kirkosta=, _from the church_; =talosta=, _from the farm_.

(6) The _illative_ is formed by adding to the root the consonants =h—n=, between which is inserted the last vowel of the root, or, if it ends in a diphthong, the second vowel in that diphthong. =Talo=, =talohon=; =metsä=, =metsähän=; =työ=, =työhön=. Generally the termination is shortened by the omission of =h=, and we have forms like =taloon=, =metsään=. It expresses the place into which motion takes place.

(7) The _adessive_ is formed with the suffix =-lla=, =-llä=, and signifies the place on which, or the object with which, anything is done. =Lattialla=, _on the floor_; =kädellä=, _with the hand_.

(8) The _ablative_ is formed with the suffix =-lta=, =-ltä=, and expresses motion from. =Maalta=, _from the land_; =pöydältä=, _from the table_.

(9) The _allative_ expresses motion towards, and is formed with the suffix =-lle=. =Pellolle=, _to the field_; =rannalle=, _to the shore_.

(10) The _abessive_ is formed with the suffix =-tta=. It expresses the absence of something; =rahatta=, _without money_.

(11) The _prolative_ is formed by adding the syllable =-tse=, and expresses motion along; =talotse=, _along the farm_. In modern Finnish it is rarely used in the singular. =Maitse=, =meritse=, _by land_, _by sea_.

(12) The _translative_ is formed with the suffix =-ksi=. It generally is used to express some change in the form of existence. =Hän tuli sotamieheksi=, _he became a soldier_.

(13) Whereas the _essive_, formed by adding =-na= or =-nä= to the root, expresses a state of being regarded as continuous. =Lapsena=, _as a child_.

(14) The _comitative_ is formed with the syllable =-ne=, and is generally used in the plural, and with a possessive affix. =Lapsine= (or oftener =lapsinensa=), _with his children_.

(15) The _instructive_ is formed by simply adding the letter =n= to a root, and expresses the means by which anything is done. =Käsin=, _with the hands_. The singular of the instructive is only used in poetry.

There are two numbers in Finnish, the singular and plural. For the singular, the suffixes are added directly to the root: to form the plural other letters are also added.

A. The nominative plural is formed by adding =t= to the root, e.g. root and nominative sing. =maa=, nominative plur. =maat=; root and nominative sing. =pata=, nominative plur. (by rule =31=) =padat=; root =vieraha=, nominative sing. =vieras=, nominative plur. =vierahat=; root =vete=, nominative sing. =vesi=, nominative plur. =vedet=.

B. The other cases, with the exceptions below mentioned, simply add =i= to the root, which suffers the necessary phonetic changes, and then take the same suffixes as the sing. =Maa=, inessive sing. =maassa=, inessive plur. =maissa= (=3=); =pata=, illative sing. =patahan= or =pataan=, illative plur. =patoihin= (=7=); =vieraha=, translative sing. =vierahaksi= or =vieraaksi=, translative plur. =vierahiksi= or =vieraiksi= (=11=).

C. But the genitive plural is formed with the suffix =-ite= (apparently a combination of the two suffixes =i= and =t(e)= above mentioned), placed before the case suffix =-n=.

This suffix is found in three forms:—

(1) =ite + n= becomes regularly =-iden=, =maiden=.

(2) Monosyllabic roots and polysyllabic roots ending with a long vowel have a strengthened form, =-itte-n=, often found alternating with =-ide-n=, e.g. =maitten=, =vierahitten=.

(3) The =t= drops out and the suffix becomes simply =-ie-n=, e.g. =jalka-iten= becomes (rule =7=) =jalko-iten=, then =jalko-ien=, then (rule =21=) =jalkojen=; =äiti-iten= becomes =äititen=, and then =äitien=. Sometimes the =i= or =j= drops out between two vowels; e.g. =kirkkoen=.

Most of the cases above enumerated are common to nearly all the Finno-Ugric languages, though the same suffixes are used with rather different meanings.

The suffix =-na=, called here essive, is used in most other languages of the family as a locative, and a few traces of this use are preserved in Finnish, e.g. =kotona=, _at home_, =ulkona=, _out of doors_, (=olla=) =läsnä=, _to be present_, =takana=, _behind_, =tänä pänä=, =tänään=, _to-day_.

No accusative is usually given in Finnish grammars, because this case coincides with the genitive in the sing., and with the nominative in the plural. The accusative sing. is, however, etymologically a distinct formation, with the termination =m= or =ma=, as is proved by a comparison of the other languages of the family (Ostiak and Vogulian =ma=, =me=, or =m=; Tcheremissian and Syrjenian =m=). As =m= cannot be a final in Finnish, it becomes =n=, and the case is indistinguishable from the genitive.

There is also an accusative in =-t=, found in the pronominal declensions of Finnish, Ostiak, Syrjenian, and Mordvinian. It is supposed to represent the demonstrative pronoun =ta= suffixed to a word, and perhaps stands for =-nt=.

Another case which occurs sporadically, though not usually given in grammars, is the Excessive, ending in =-nta=. This termination is much used in the dialect spoken about St. Petersburg, and is even employed by some writers. It expresses departure either from a place or a state; e.g. =kotonta=, _from home_; =hän jäi palvelijanta=, _he gave up being a servant_. =Hän muutti paimenenta rengiksi=, _he became a farm-labourer instead of a shepherd_. It is also found in some adverbial forms, e.g. =siintä=, =luonta=, =takanta=.

Another sporadic case is an allative or dative ending in =-nne=, =-ne=, or =-n=. Its original form seems to have been =-nek=, for in the Savo-dialect we find =tuonnek=, =tännek= instead of the ordinary =tuonne=, =tänne=, _thither, hither_. In written Finnish this termination is only used in a few adverbs, as =sinne=, _thither_, =muuanne=, _to another place_. =Alle=, =päälle=, and =ylle= are also apparently for =al-ne=, =pääl-ne=, =yl-ne=. In the expression =Jumalan kiitos=, _thanks be to God_, =Jumalan= appears to be really this case, and similar strange uses of an apparent genitive in old writings are no doubt to be explained the same way.

It will be observed that the local cases are arranged in two sets of three, one characterised by the presence of =s=, the other by that of =l=.

We have:—

Inessive =s-sa= (for =s-na=) Adessive =l-la= (for =l-na=) Elative =s-ta= Ablative =l-ta= Illative =sen= or =h-n=. Allative =l-le= (for =l-len=)

The Essive in =na= and Excessive in =n-ta= are parts of a similar set.

The case called adessive (=-lla=) is also used as an instrumental, and probably represents two original cases.

The primitive form of the abessive appears to have been =taka= or =taha=, which is considered by some as identical with the word =taka=, _back_. Besides the regular termination in =-tta=, the forms =-ta= and =-t= are found in dialects, and =-ti= in some adverbs; =ääneti=, _silently_; =huoleti=, _carelessly_. Closely connected with the abessive are the caritive adjectives ending in =-ttoma=.

The prolative, though generally counted as one of the regular cases, is really very seldom employed, and cannot be formed from the majority of nouns.

The plur. inflection of the Finno-Ugric languages, gives three suffixes, =t=, =k=, and =i=, of which =t= and =i= are found in Finnish. It has been suggested that the =t= and =k= are really identical, =k= not being allowable as a final letter. It is not improbable that =i= may be the remains of a =k= weakened to =j= (cf. =26=, =27=).

=There are no genders in Finnish.=

The simplest way of dividing the declensions is by the form of the Partitive case.

The _first_ declension has the partitive ending in =ta= or =tä=, after a long vowel or diphthong.

The _second_ has the partitive ending in =a= or =ä=, after a short vowel.