Part 4

They possess the vowel harmony, and apparently a law for the weakening of consonants analogous to that of Finnish and Esthonian, e.g. =kinta=, =kindan=; =mat=, =maden=; =sok=, =sogon=. The noun is strikingly like Finnish. We find a genitive in =n=, an accusative in =m= or =p= (cf. Lappish), a dative in =ni= or =n=, a locative in =nan= (cf. Finnish =na=), and an instrumental in =se=. There are three numbers, the dual is characterised by =g= or =hā= (cf. gen. in Ostiak, =ag= in Vogul), and the plural is formed with =la= or =t= (=d=). The pronouns show a good deal of variety, and it is evident that some forms (e.g. =pudar=, _thou_; =puda=, _he_) are not real pronouns but substantives used as pronouns. Still we find a general consensus for =man= as the 1st person singular, and some form of the same word for the plural; =tan= for the second singular, and =te=, =ten=, or =ši= for the plural (cf. Lappish, Cheremissian, Syrjenian, and Mordvinian). The 3rd person exists in several forms, =tep=, =sete=, =di=, etc., which may perhaps be compared with the Ostiak =ten=, Cheremissian =tidä=, and Syrjenian =si̱a=. The pronominal affixes are also extraordinarily numerous and varied, but they seem to include =m= for the 1st singular, =t= or =d= for the 2nd, =jea= (cf. Magyar =ja=) for the 3rd; =mu= or =met= for the 1st plural, and =ta= or =tet= for the 2nd. The interrogative pronouns are =kutö=, =hübea=, =hoke=, etc., _who_, and =ma=, =mi=, _what_. The verb and noun are not sharply distinguished. The verb takes two sets of pronominal suffixes, the predicative, with which an intransitive verb is always conjugated, and the possessive, which are used with both transitive and intransitive verbs. The preterite is formed by adding =s=, which occurs as a preterite suffix in Cheremissian, Mordvinian, Vogul, and Ostiak. The conjunctive is formed with =nji=, =ne=, =na= (cf. the Finnish =ne=). The imperative is formed with the syllable =kar=, =gar=, =har= (cf. Finnish =ka=). There is also an optative with the suffix =rava=, so perhaps =kar= is =ka-ra=.

Besides this similarity of grammatical forms there is a large common vocabulary. The following examples are taken at haphazard out of Castren’s lexicon:—_River_, =jaha=, =joha= (Finn. =joki=); _hill_, =pirda= (Finn. =vuori=); _dark_, =paebi=, =paevuda= (=pimeä=); _to blow_, =pu’u= (=puhua=); _half_, =pealea=, =fealla= (=puoli=); _good_, =sava=, =sova= (=hyvä=); _fire_, =tu= (=tuli=); _fish_, =kole=, =hale= (=kala=); _tree_, =po=, =pe=, =pea= (=puu=); _bear_, =korg=, =kuerg= (=karhu=); _earth_, =mon= (=maa=); _narrow_, _small_, =tîjea= (=tyhjä=, _empty_); _to place_, =puenan= (=panna=); _live_, =jileadm= (=eleä=); _come_, =tû’am=, =töak= (=tulla=)[4].

On the other hand, the Samoyede languages differ in many ways from the Ugro-Altaic group. The numbers are entirely different. The Ostiak Samoyede =ōker=, _one_, shows a faint resemblance to =yhte=, and =sidea=, or =sede=, _two_, has been compared with =kahte=, but such analogies are doubtful. Only the number _seven_, =sin=, =sjelde=, =sjaibua= shows a resemblance with the Finno-Ugric forms. But it is clear that the Samoyede numbers represent very primitive attempts at numeration (e.g. Jurak. =hâsava-ju=, _Samoyede big number_, for _nine_, =lutsa-ju=, _Russian big number_ for _ten_), and that in many cases Turkish numbers have been borrowed (cf. =tjet=, =tet=, _four_, with Yakut =tüört= and =kamass=, =khera= 40, =iliχ= 50, =althon= 60, with Turkish =kirk=, =elli=, =altmish=). Samoyede is also more like the Turkish than the Finno-Ugric language in its power of adding predicative and temporal suffixes to nouns (which implies a want of distinction between the verb and noun). Thus =lūtsa= means _a Russian_; =lūtsam=, _I am a Russian_; =lūtsamsʻ=, _I was a Russian_.

The above sketch of Samoyede has no pretence to be exhaustive, and may be charged with inaccuracy, inasmuch as words and forms are cited indifferently from all the dialects. For a proper investigation of the question it is no doubt necessary to thoroughly study the relations of the Samoyede languages to one another, to establish the original forms, and in particular to determine the influence of foreign languages, whether Turkish or Finno-Ugric, on the Samoyede vocabulary. But unless there is something strangely misleading in the superficial character of these dialects, it appears to me that they undoubtedly stand far nearer to Finno-Ugric than do Turkish or Mongolian, and should indeed be classed as outlying members of the Finno-Ugric group. The want of similarity in the numbers is certainly very strange, but the other resemblances in vocabulary seem to me to be conclusive, unless all the words in question are borrowed.

A FINNISH GRAMMAR.

The Finnish Alphabet consists of 21 letters, viz.: =a=, =d=, =e=, =g=, =h=, =i=, =j=, =k=, =l=, =m=, =n=, =o=, =p=, =r=, =s=, =t=, =u=, =v= (or =w=), =y=, =ä=, =ö=.

German characters are sometimes used, in which case w always represents the =v= sound. In the Roman character =v= and =w= are used indifferently to express the sound of the English _v_.

The pronunciation of the consonants offers little difficulty. Most of them have the same sounds as in English.

=D=. In true Finnish words this letter is never found at the beginning or end, and in the middle always represents a softened =t= (_vide_ changes of consonants p. 13). Even in this position it is hardly ever heard in the language as spoken by peasants, but replaced in the West Finnish dialect by a sound between =r= and =l=, and in the Eastern dialect entirely omitted. Educated people, however, pronounce it as in English. Thus the educated pronunciation of the genitive case of =sota= is =sodan=; but in dialects the forms =soran=, =solan=, or =soan= are found. The letter =d= is always omitted in the Kalevala, which is written in the Karelian dialect.

=G=, except in a few foreign words, is only found in the combination =ng=, representing an original =nk=, pronounced as in English. In the neighbourhood of St. Petersburg this letter is never used, =k= taking its place.

=H= is a stronger aspirate than in English, and is almost the Russian _x_ or German _ch_. It is heard very distinctly at the end of syllables, e.g. in =tehdä=.

=J= is the English _y_ in _yes_ or _yard_.

The remaining letters of the Roman Alphabet _b_, _c_, _f_, _q_, _x_, _z_, and the Swedish _å_ (pronounced _o_) are sometimes met with in foreign words, but an uneducated Finn will always pronounce =b= and =f= as =p= and =v=, and is also incapable of producing such sounds as the English _ch_ and _sh_, which when occurring in Russian names are generally represented in a Finnish mouth by simple =s=.

There is also a slight aspiration found at the end of some words, as =veneʻ=, _a boat_, =syödäʻ=, _to eat_. It is not usually written, and hardly heard except in some dialects, though it has a grammatical importance, and in some educational works is marked, as above, by an inverted comma.

It will be seen that there is a great paucity of consonants in the Finnish language; the alphabet contains but 13, and of these =g= and =d= are never found at the beginning of native words. Further no word can begin with two consonants, and foreign words, commencing with such combinations, always lose one or more letters, for instance the Swedish words =strand= (_shore_), and =spel= (_game_), appear as =ranta=, =peli=.

On the other hand there is an extraordinary wealth of vowel sounds, and it is of capital importance to learn the exact pronunciation of them all.

The simple sounds are eight in number.

=A= is the Italian _a_ (English _a_ in _rather_ or _father_), but pronounced quicker. It is always short.

=E= is the English _e_ in _met_.

=I= is the English _i_ in _bit_.

=O= is the English _o_ in _hot_.

=U= is the English _u_ in _bull_.

=Y= is the German _ü_ in _über_.

=Ä=, which must be carefully distinguished from =A=, is the short English _a_ heard in _hat_, or _trap_, and must not be pronounced as the English _a_ in _late_. Thus =hän=, _he_, is pronounced exactly like _hand_ without the final _d_. At the end of words (e.g. =työtä=) =ä= is more difficult for an Englishman to pronounce, as the sound is not found in English as a final.

=Ö= is like the French _eu_.

It is very important to observe that the simple vowels are all _short_ sounds. The corresponding long sounds are written by doubling the vowel.

=Aa= is a long Italian _a_, like the _a_ in _rather_, whereas the sound of simple _a_ is shorter than that which we (generally) give to the vowel in this word.

=Ee= is like the English _a_ in _pale_, _late_.

=Ii= is the English _ee_ in _keen_, _three_.

=Oo= is the English _o_ in _hope_.

=Uu= is the English _oo_ in _boot_.

=Yy= is the German _ü_, pronounced long.

=Ää= is the _a_ in _had_, but long. It is a rather difficult sound, but can be obtained by lingering over the vowel of _had_ or _man_, taking care not to change its quality.

=Öö= is the sound of the simple =ö= lengthened.

Besides these simple and double vowels there are also 16 diphthongs, in which both vowels should be sounded but so rapidly and continuously as to form one syllable. They may be divided into two classes.

(1) Those in which the stress is on the second vowel. =uo=, =yö=, =ie=, e.g. =tuo=, _this_, =tie=, _a way_, =yö=, _night_.

(2) Those in which the stress is on the first vowel. Of these there are—

(_a_) Four ending in =u=. =au=, =ou=, =iu=, =eu=. =Kauppa=, _sale_, =koulu=, _school_, =hiukka=, _a grain_, =leuka=, _chin_.

(_b_) Two ending in =y=: =äy=, =öy=. =Väylä=, _river bed_, =höyhen=, _feather_.

(_c_) Seven ending in =i=: =ai=, =oi=, =ui=, =ei=, =äi=, =öi=, =yi=. E.g. =nai=, _he married_, =koi=, _a moth_, =pui=, _he threshed_, =vei=, _he led_, =päivä=, _day_, =löi=, _he struck_, =myi=, _he sold_.

These diphthongs, with the exception of those ending in =i=, are found only in the first syllable of words, otherwise the two vowels form two syllables: e.g. =tapa-us=, not =tapa͡us=, =kope-us=, not =kope͡us=, but =talko͡issa=, =pape͡illa=.

The pronunciation of these diphthongs offers no difficulties when that of the simple vowels has been mastered. It must be remembered that they are real diphthongs where both vowels sounds are heard, but pronounced rapidly, so that _au_, though very near the _ow_ in the English _how_, is not quite like it. The pronunciation of =äy= and =öy= requires attention, but is, like that of all the diphthongs, merely the result of pronouncing the simple vowels rapidly.

The chief accent in Finnish is always on the first syllable of every word. =Tálo=, =mínä=, =párempi=, =kívettä=.

There is a secondary accent, generally on the third, fifth, ... syllables, but occasionally on the fourth, sixth, ... e.g. =op-pi-mát-to-múu-des-sán-sa= (_in his ability to learn_).

But =ó-pet-ta-mát-to-múu-des-sán-sa= (_in his ignorance_).

But in no case is the second or last syllable accented, so that such sounds as _howéver_, _deláy_, are impossible.

The pronunciation of Finnish is generally described as easy, but this is by no means the case. It is true that the language contains no sound which is really difficult for an Englishman, but on the other hand extreme care is necessary to pronounce even the simplest words correctly. For instance, in the word =menemme= (_we come_), three things are to be observed. The accent is on the first syllable, the =n= is single and not double, and the =m= is doubled. An Englishman, who has not learned how to pronounce, will in all probability say not =menemme=, but =menneme=. This is because he finds it natural to double the =n= after the accented syllable and hard to double the =m=, without accenting the second syllable. It must be observed, that:—

(1) The simple consonants are pronounced very lightly; =tuli=, _fire_, nearly rhymes to the English _fully_, but the =l= is lighter.

(2) The double consonants must be pronounced distinctly twice, as in Italian. =Kuk-ka=, _flower_, =kyl-lä=, _enough_, =pap-pi=, _priest_.

(3) The simple vowels are very short, the long vowels are to be dwelt on, but the length of a vowel has nothing to do with the accent. =Púhuu= must not be pronounced as if it were =Puhúu=, or =puúhu=.

The observance of these rules is necessary, not only to insure a correct pronunciation, but to prevent absolute confusion, for the paucity of consonants in Finnish results in the existence of a mass of words, which though very distinct to a native, are liable to be confounded by a stranger, and the natural tendency of an Englishman or Russian to slur over unaccented syllables results in complete unintelligibility. For instance, =tuli= is _a fire_, or, _he came_, =tulli=, _a tax_, =tulla=, _to come_ (infinitive), =tule=, _come_ (imperative and root), =tulee=, _he comes_: =tullee=, the concessive of the same verb, =tuuli=, _a wind_, =tuulla=, _to blow_. =Kylä= is _a village_, but =kyllä=, _enough_. =Pitää=, _to hold_, =pyytää=, _to ask_, =peittää=, _to cover_, =peite=, _a covering_, =pöytä=, _a table_.

OF THE FORMATION OF SYLLABLES AND WORDS.

A syllable ending in a simple vowel or diphthong is called _open_: one ending in a consonant or the aspiration is called closed. E.g. =I-sä=, _father_, =tuo-da=, _to bring_, consist of open syllables: =kis-sat=, _cats_, =kir-jat=, _books_, of closed.

As already stated, a word cannot begin or end with more than one consonant.

If a double consonant occurs in the middle of a word the first letter must be pronounced with the preceding vowel and the second with the succeeding, e.g. =pal-lo=, not =pall-o=.

=1.= (1) At the end of the first syllable of a word two consonants are tolerated, provided the first be =l=, =r=, =n=, or =m=, and the second =k=, =t=, =p=, or =s=. =Pilk-ku=, _a spot_, =kent-tä=, _a field_, =simp-sukka=, _pearl_: otherwise one of the consonants must be rejected.

=2.= (2) At the end of the second or succeeding syllables may stand only one consonant, and every word must end with a vowel or one of the consonants =n=, =r=, =s=, =t=, =l= (rare), or the aspiration.

If the grammatical changes cause an agglomeration of consonants which does not come under these rules, the consonants must be simplified or changed; =syöks-tä= becomes =syöstä=: =avaim= (for =avaime=) becomes =avain=.

One of the most characteristic features of the Finnish language is what is called the _Harmony of the vowels_. Besides the division of the vowels according to length, there is another by which they are classified according to their quality as follows:—

Hard =a=, =o=, =u=. Soft =ä=, =ö=, =y=. Neutral =e=, =i=.

Long vowels and diphthongs belong to the same class as their component elements, which can never be discordant, that is to say, =ay= or =äu= are impossible combinations.

The first syllable of a word may contain any of these vowels. The formation of the remaining syllables is determined by the following rules:—

(1) If the first syllable contains a hard vowel, the vowels in the other syllables must be either hard or neutral, but not soft, =Kala=, _a fish_: ablative, =kalalta=. =Ansaita=, _to deserve_, =ansaitsevat=, _they deserve_.

(2) If the vowel in the first syllable is soft, then the vowels of all the other syllables must be soft or neutral, but not hard. =Tölli=, _a cottage_, =töllissä=, _in the cottage_; =kätkein=, =käkeittäköön=.

(3) If the vowel in the first syllable is neutral, two cases occur.

(_a_) If the vowel of the second syllable is hard, as in the word =vieras=, the succeeding vowels must be either hard or neutral: =vierahaksi= (transitive case).

(_b_) If the vowel of the second syllable is either soft _or neutral_, all the other vowels must be soft or neutral, but not hard. =Retki=, _a journey_, partitive case, =retki-ä=; =sirppi=, _sickle_, =sirppiä=.

It will thus be seen that there are two forms of every termination in Finnish, one containing hard and the other a soft vowel. Thus the ablative ends in =-lta= or =-ltä=: =maa=, =maalta=, but =työ=, =työltä=.

The hard and soft vowels are never found coexisting in any simple Finnish word, but there is no objection to such a compound as =kirkko-väki=, =kirkko-isä=.

This principle of vowel harmony is really extremely natural, and facilitates pronunciation, as will be seen by the example of French. An Englishman pronouncing such combinations as _voulu_, or _du tout_ has, if not accustomed to the language, a tendency to say _voulou_, _du tut_, making the two vowels the same, because the sudden change in the position of the pronouncing organs required to say _u_ or _ou_, or vice versa, is a matter of some difficulty. It is the consciousness of this difficulty which has led Finnish and other languages to adopt the rule that the vowels of a word must be of the same character, so that no rude change may be necessary for their pronunciation.

This vowel harmony is not found in all the Finno-Ugric languages. In its fully developed form it exists (_v._ Dr. Donner, die gegenseitige Verwandschaft der Finnish-ugrischen Sprachen, p. 9) only in Finnish, the Dorpat dialect of Esthonian, Hungarian, one dialect of Tcheremissian and one of Vogulian. In many others of these languages it is found in an incomplete form, whence some think that it is an original characteristic of the Finno-Ugric group, which has been lost by some tribes whose phonetic sense was not keen. Some authorities hold that in the Finno-Ugric language there are two kinds of vowel harmony: firstly, that prevailing between the different syllables of a stem, which is characteristic of all the tongues included in this group, and secondly that which assimilates the vowels of suffixes to those of the stem—i.e. that which obliges us to say =repinyt= and not =repinut=. This latter species of vowel harmony is not primitive, but has been gradually developed, perfectly in Finnish and Hungarian, and imperfectly in the other languages. This view seems very reasonable.

CHANGES OF SOUNDS.

All Finnish words consist of a root to which certain suffixes have been attached, but the addition of these latter often causes certain changes in the final vowel and consonants of the original root. In order to inflect words correctly it is necessary to know these changes.

A. _Changes of Vowels._

I. THE LONG VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS.

=3.= The long vowels are always shortened when followed by =i=, that is to say, the vowel is written once and not twice. Thus =maa=, _earth_, which takes an =i= in all the cases in the plural except the nominative, forms =maita=, =maitten=, =maiksi=, etc., not =maaita=; =puu=, _tree_, =puita=, =puiden=, =puiksi=.

=4.= The diphthongs with the accent on the second vowel, =uo=, =yö=, =ie=, when followed by =i=, reject the first vowel, and thus form a new diphthong—=työ=, _work_, becomes in the plural =töistä=, =töissä=, =töiksi=, etc.; =vien=, _I lead_, =vein= (=vie-in=), _I led_; =luo=, _he creates_, =loisi= (=luo-isi=), _he would create_.

=5.= Diphthongs ending in =i= reject this =i= if another =i= follows, =uin=, _I swim_, =uin= (for =ui-in=), _I swam_.

In the root =käy=, _to go_, =y= is changed into =v= before a vowel—e.g. =käy-in= becomes =kävin=.

II. SHORT VOWELS.

The simple vowels =o=, =ö=, =u=, =y= are invariable, but =a=, =ä=, =e=, =i= are subject to certain changes in the last syllable of a root.

=A. Ä.=

When the vowels =A= and =Ä= at the end of a root are followed by the =i= characteristic of the imperfect tense, or plural, they undergo the following changes:—

=6.= (1) =Ä= is always rejected in disyllables—e.g. =heitän=, _I throw_, =heitin=, _I threw_.

=7.= (2) =A= at the end of disyllabic roots is rejected before =i=, if the vowel of the first syllable is =o=, =u=, =uu=, =ou=, =uo=, =oi=, or =ui=: but is changed into =o= if that vowel is =a=, =e=, =i=, =aa=, =ii=, =ai=, =au=, =ei=, =eu=, =ie=, or =iu=. Thus =ottavat=, _they take_, past =ottivat= (for =ottaivat=); =nuora=, _a cord_, =nuorilla=, _with cords_; =tupa=, _a hut_, =tuvissa=, _in huts_. But on the other hand, =kala=, _a fish_, =kaloiksi=; =annan=, _I give_, =annoin=, _I gave_; =kannan=, _I carry_, =kannoin=, _I carried_.[5]

Disyllabic verbs, where the final =a= is preceded by =t=, can change it into =o=, but generally reject it, =ahtoi= or =ahti=: =kaartoi= or =kaarti=.

=8.= Derivatives of verbs in =ma=, =ja=, =va=, always reject the =a=: =sanova=, =sanovia=; =ottaja=, =ottajia=; =puhuva=, =puhuvia=.

=9.= (3) Polysyllabic verbs always reject =a= and =ä= in the imperfect. =Odotan=, _I wait_, =odotin=, _I waited_, etc. The rejection also takes place in polysyllabic substantives ending in =-mpa=, =-mpä=, and derivatives in =va=, =vä=, =sa=, =sä=, and those where =h= or any vowel but =i= precedes the final =a=, e.g. =vanhempa=, =vanhemmille=; =sanova=, =sanovina=; =vieraha=, =vierahille=; =kapea=, =kapeita=. But should the final =a= be preceded by two consonants, or the penultimate syllable contain the vowel =i=, =a= and =ä= become respectively =o= and =ö=; =asia=, _a thing_, =asioissa=; =karitsa=, _a lamb_, =karitsoita=; =kynttilä=, _a candle_, =kynttilöitä=, _candles_. But the words =isäntä=, =emäntä= always reject =i=, =isännille=, =emännille=.

=10.= (4) In cases which come under none of these heads, e.g. such a word as =peruna=, _potatoe_, =a=, =ä= can be either dropped or changed to =o=, =ö=, =perunia= or =perunoita=, partitive case plural.

=11.= (5) =a= and =ä= change to =e= before the comparative suffix =-mpa= in disyllabic words, and before the suffix =ta=, =tta=, of the passive. =Vanha=, _old_, comparative =vanhempi=; =istutan=, _I plant_, =istutetaan=, passive.

=12.= (6) The nominative sing. of superlatives (stem =-impa=), and of caritive adjectives (stem =-toma=), drops =a=: =kovimpa= becomes =kovin= (by rules =24=, =46=); and =viattoma=, _innocent_, =viaton= (=46=).

=13.= (7) =a=, =ä= become =i= in the nominative sing. of comparatives, stem =kovempa=, nominative =kovempi=.

=E.=

=14.= (1) =E= is always rejected before =i=. =Kive-illä= becomes =kivillä=, _with stones_; =Mere-illä=, =Merillä=.

=15.= (2) Dissyllables ending in =e= always change that vowel to =i= in the nominative singular. Stems, =mere=, _sea_, =tuule=, _wind_, nominatives, =meri=, =tuuli=.

The only important exceptions to this rule are the words =itse=, _self_, and =kolme=, _three_. =Nukke=, _a doll_, is also found, and =sine=, _blue_, is used as well as =sini=.

The stem =miehe=, _man_, makes =mies= in the nominative sing.

=16.= (3) Polysyllabic stems ending in =e= reject it in the nominative sing. Stem, =sisare=; nominative, =sisar=, _a sister_.

=17.= (4) The final =e= of a disyllabic stem disappears in nouns before terminations commencing with =t=, and in verbs before terminations beginning with =k= or =n=, provided that =e= is preceded by any simple consonant but =k=, =p=, =v=, =m=, or by a double consonant of which the last letter is =t= or =s= (except =ht=). Thus from the stem =une= (_sleep_), =vuore= (_mountain_), =vete= (_water_) (nominative, =vesi=), come the forms =unta=, =vuorta=, =vettä=, and from the verbal stems =tule= (_come_), =mene= (_go_), such forms as =tulkaa=, =tullut= (for =tulnut=), =menkää=. =Lapse=, _a child_, forms =lasta=, for =lapsta=; =veitse=, _a knife_, =veistä= for =veitstä=.

But =e= remains in the verbs =potea=, _to fall ill_, =tuntea=, _to know_, and in =itse=, _self_, =suksi=, _snowshoe_, =sääksi=, _a gnat_, =ripsi=, _an eyelash_, =viiksi=, _a moustache_, which form their partitives in =itseä=, =suksea=, etc.

=18.= But in disyllabic words =e= is not rejected if preceded by =k=, =p=, =v=, or =m=. Thus the stems =joke=, _river_, =läpe=, _a hole_, =kive=, _stone_, =Suome=, _Finland_, form their partitives =jokea=, =läpeä=, =kiveä=, =Suomea=.