Part 12

The termination =i= is added to dissyllables ending in =ä=, =e=, =i=, and also to such dissyllables ending in =a= as have =o= or =u= as their first vowel, whereas dissyllables in =a= with =a=, =e=, or =i= for their first vowel, suffix =o=. This rule is analogous to no. =7=, and is prompted by a desire to avoid the repetition of the same in succeeding syllables. In all cases the final vowel of the stem is elided before the termination. Examples—=kukkia=, _to flower_ (=kukka=); =sotia=, _to fight_ (=sota=); =munia=, _to lay eggs_ (=muna=); =huolia=, _to care_ (=huoli=); but =sanoa=, _to speak_ (=sana=); =neuloa=, _to sew_ (=neula=); =leipoa=, _to bake_ (=leipä=).

The termination =itse= is added chiefly to trisyllabic roots, but also to dissyllables. In trisyllabic words the final =a= and =ä= of stems always become =o= and =ö= before =i=; in dissyllables the final vowel sometimes undergoes this change and is sometimes rejected. The verbs so formed are conjugated according to conjugation III, so that the infinitive ends in =oita= for =oitse=. This termination is closely related to the termination =i=, so much so that almost all the words formed with it have double forms. For example, from =satula=, _a saddle_, is formed either the verbal stem =satuloi=; infinitive =satuloida=; present =satuloin=; or the stem =satuloitse=; infinitive =satuloita=; present =satuloitsen=.

Examples of verbs: =iloita=, _to be glad_ (=ilo=); =hedelmöitä=, _to give fruit_ (=hedelmä=); =askaroita=, _to work_ (=askere=); =jumaloita= (=jumala=), _to deify_; =palmikoita=, _to twine_ (=palmikko=).

=tta=, =itta=. These terminations are added to monosyllables, to dissyllables ending in =i=, =o= (=ö=), and =u= (=y=), and trisyllables in =a= (=ä=) (which always changes to =o=) and =e=. Dissyllabic and polysyllabic words prefer the termination without =i=. This suffix is the same as that used to form transitive verbs from intransitive, and a large proportion of the verbs which are derived from nouns by its addition are factitive. =Päättää=, _to finish_ (=päättyä=, _to end_, intransitive); =jäättää=, _to freeze_; =kirjoittaa=, _to write_; =lahjoittaa=, _to make a present_; =hyvittää=, _to use well_; =syyttää=, _to accuse_; =kunnioittaa=, _to honour_.

=sta= or =ista= is added generally to dissyllabic stems, whose final vowel is lost before =i=, though =a= sometimes becomes =o=. =Metsästää=, _to hunt_; =kärjestää=, _to sharpen_; =kalastaa=, _to fish_; =ylistää=, _to extol_; =yhdistää=, _to unite_; =äänestää=, _to express an opinion_, _to vote_.

Another class of verbs are called translative, and express a change to the state denoted by the noun from which the verb is formed.

Such are formed with the following terminations:—

(1) =ne= is added chiefly to dissyllables, also to trisyllables in =ea= (=eä=), whose final =a= (=ä=), and sometimes =o=, changes to =e=. The verb so formed is conjugated according to the third conjugation, and the syllable =ne= altogether disappears in the infinitive, which ends in =eta=. =Aleta= (present =alenen=) _to sink down_; =musteta=, _to become black_; =lähetä=, _to draw near_; =pimetä=, _to grow dark_.

(2) =a= or =ä= is added mostly to dissyllabic roots ending in =i=, which changes to =e=; if added to roots ending in =a=, this vowel generally becomes =o=. It is also added to trisyllables in =ea= (=eä=). =Soeta=, _to become blind_ (=sokea=).

A small number of verbs are formed from adjectives by the addition of the suffix =ksi= or =ksu=, before which =a= and =ä= are often changed to =e=. These verbs, sometimes called _censitive_, express the light in which something is regarded. =Halveksia=, _to hold cheap_ (=halpa=); =hyveksiä= _or_ =hyväksyä=, _to find good_, _to approve_; =pahaksua= _or_ =paheksia=, _to find bad_, _to be angry at_; =väheksiä= _or_ =vähäksyä=, _to find small or despise_.

POSTPOSITIONS.

The place of prepositions in other languages is supplied by postpositions, that is to say, by words which follow a substantive (mostly in the genitive or partitive case). These words are not, however, really analogous to the indeclinable prepositions of other languages; they are cases of substantives, some of which are found used in the nominative case. For instance, =ali= (not used as a substantive) means a place under something else. From this are formed the cases =alla=, =alle=, =alta=, etc., which are used as prepositions, e.g. =kissa on pöydän alla=, _the cat is in the place under the table_, that is, _under the table_; =kissa meni pöydän alle=, _the cat went to the place under the table_, that is, _under the table_; =kissa tuli pöydän alta=, _the cat came from the place under the table_, or _from under the table_. A list of these substantives, which are mostly fragmentary in their declensions, is given in the Syntax. A few of them precede the substantive which they govern and can hence be called prepositions. Such words mostly require that the substantive which they govern should be in the partitive, whereas postpositions follow a word in the genitive.

In these words we may distinguish two classes:—

A. Those which are used as postpositions only in one case, and which have become more or less petrified. Such are =ennen=, _before_; =ilman=, _without_; =kanssa=, _with_; =varten=, _for_.

B. Those which are used in several cases. Some of these are ordinary substantives used in the nominative and other cases. The postpositional usage of such words corresponds to such English phrases as ‘in the middle of.’ Such are =joukko=, _a crowd_; (=joukossa=, =joukkoon=); =jälki=, _a footstep_ (=jälessä=, =jälestä=, =jälkeen=); =kohta=, _a place_ (=kohdalla=, =kohdalta=, =kohdalle=, =kohtaan=); =puoli=, _a half_ (=puolessa=, =puolesta=, =puolella=, =puolelta=, =puoleen=); =pää=, _a head_ (=päässä=, =päästä=, =päähän=, =päällä=, =päälle=, =päältä=).

Others, though clearly substantives in their form, are not used except as particles:—=yli=, =ylitse=, =yllä=, =ylle=, =yltä=; =ympäri=, =ympärillä=, =ympäriltä=, =ympärille=; =alla=, =alta=, =alle=; =edessä=, =edestä=, =eteen=, =edellä=, =edeltä=, =edelle=; =luota=, =luona=, =luo=; =ohessa=, =ohesta=, =oheen=, =ohitse=; =myötä=, =myöten=, and others.

THE ADVERB.

There are two classes of adverbs in Finnish: (1) Independent adverbs, (2) Adverbial suffixes.

The independent adverbs are often cases of nouns which differ from postpositions only in this, that they are used absolutely, and not in connection with another word. Thus in =käydä kaupungin ympäri=, _to go round the town_, =ympäri= may be described as a postposition, while in =käydä ympäri=, where it stands alone and absolute, it is an adverb. Similarly in =kulkea puutarhan ohitse=, _to pass by the garden_, =ohitse= is a postposition, but in =pian se menee ohitse=, _it will soon be over_, it is an adverb.

These independent adverbs are formed in different ways:—

A. Some are primitive words, whose grammatical formation is not clear, e.g. =nyt=, _now_; =heti=, _soon_; =aina=, _always_; =vielä=, _yet_; =koska=, _when_.

B. A second class is formed by the addition of certain suffixes.

(1) Adverbs are formed from adjectives by the addition of =sti=, perhaps related to the suffix of the elative, =sta=, e.g. =hywä=, _good_, =hywästi=, _well_; =tietty=, _known_; =tietysti=, _certainly_. =lti= is also found (cf. ablative =lta=); =laajalti=, _widely_, e.g. =se on laajalti tunnettu=, _he is widely known_; =paksulta=, _much_ or _thickly_; =syvältä=, _deeply_.

(2) =ten= or =ti= (cf. prolative =tse=) is added to pronouns. =Täten=, _so_; =miten=, _how_; =siten=, _so_; =muuten=, _otherwise_; =peräti=, _entirely_.

(3) =isin= (instructive) is added to nouns. =Maisin=, _by land_; =takaisin=, _back_.

(4) =nne= is added to pronouns, and forms adverbs of direction. =Sinne=, _thither_; =tänne=, _hither_; =minne=, _whither_; =jonnekunne=, _to somewhere or other_.

(5) =tusten=, =tuksin=, =ksuttain=, =kkain=, are used to form adverbs expressing a mutual relation. =Rinnatusten=, _side by side_; =käsityksin=, _hand in hand_; =peräksyttäin= _or_ =peräkkäin=, _one behind the other_.

(6) =oin=, or sometimes =ain= (probably from =ajoin=, =aika=, _time_), is added to the adessive case of pronouns to form temporal adverbs. =Silloin=, _then_; =milloin=, _when_; =muinoin=, _formerly_.

C. Various cases of nouns are used as adverbs:—

_Nominative_—E.g. =kohta=, _soon_; =kyllä=, _enough_.

_Accusative_ or _genitive_—=kauan=, _long_; =paljon=, _much_.

_Partitive_—=ulkoa=, _outside_; =salaa=, _secretly_.

_Inessive_—=tässä=, _here_; =missä=, _where_; =yhdessä=, _together_; =pystyssä=, _straight, upright_.

_Elative_—=tästä=, _hence_; =mistä=, _whence_; =ainoastaan= _or_ =ainoastansa=, _only_.

_Illative_—=yhteen=, _together_; =tarkkaan=, _accurately_.

_Adessive_—=tuolla=, =siellä=, _there_; =kaikkialla=, _everywhere_.

_Ablative_—=kaikkialta=, _from all sides_; =muualta=, _from another place_.

_Allative_—=uudelleen=, _anew_; =verkalleen=, _gradually_.

_Essive_—=ulkona=, _outside_; =kotona=, _at home_; =huomenna=, _to-morrow_; =kaukana=, _far_.

_Translative_, where =kse= is generally abbreviated to =s=,—=alas=, _below_; =ulos=, _without_; =myös=, _also_.

_Abessive_, where =tta= becomes =ti=,—=ääneti=, _silently_; =huoleti=, _without care_.

_Instructive_—=niin=, _so_; =kuin=, _how_; =tosin=, _truly_; =harvoin=, _rarely_; =kaksittain=, _two at a time_.

The second infinitive is also used adverbially in the instructive, =nimittäin= (for =en=), _that is to say_.

Adverbs are also found in the comparative and superlative degree, and are then in the essive, partitive, and translative cases, or adessive, ablative, and allative. The termination =ksi= of the translative often sinks to =s=, or merely the aspirate. =Likempänä=, _nearer_; =likempää=, =likemmäksi= (=-mmäs= _or_ =-mmaʻ=), =likemmällä=, =likemmältä=, etc.

The adverbial suffixes are added to the end of other words. The principal are—

=Ko=, =kö=, which gives an interrogative meaning to the word to which it is affixed, like =ли= in Russian.

=Han=, =hän=, =pa=, =pä=, have a strengthening or affirmative force.

=Ki=, =kin=, have a copulative sense,—=minäkin=, _I too_.

CONJUNCTIONS.

According to their signification conjunctions may be divided into—

(_a_) _Copulative_—=ja=, =ynnä=, and =sekä=, _also_; =sekä ... että=, _both ... and_; =ka=, =kä= (enclitic), _and_.

(_b_) _Disjunctive_—=eli=, =tahi=, =tai=, =taikka=, _or_; =joko ... tai=, _either ... or_.

(_c_) _Adversative_—=mutta=, =vaan=, _but_; =kuitenkin=, =toki=, _however_.

(_d_) _Inferential_—=sentähden=, =siksi=, _therefore_; =siis=, =niin-muodoin=, _consequently_; =niin=, _so, accordingly_.

(_e_) _Causal_—=sillä=, _for_; =kun=, =koska=, _because_.

(_f_) _Comparative_—=kuin=, _than_; =ikäänkuin=, _as, if_.

(_g_) _Temporal_—=kun=, _when_; =jahka=, =heti kuin=, _as soon as_; =ennenkuin=, _before that_; =sittenkuin=, _after that_.

(_h_) _Final_ and _Consecutive_—=että=, =jotta=, _that_.

(_i_) _Conditional_—=jos=, _if_.

(_j_) _Concessive_—=vaikka=, =jos=, =kohta=, _even if_.

(_k_) _Interrogative_—=ko=, =kö= (enclitic), =tokko=, =josko=, =vai=, _is it ... or_ (like the Latin ‘utrum’ ... ‘an’).

It will be noticed that these conjunctions are in great part merely cases of pronouns or adjectives, e.g. =sentähden=, =kuin=, =sillä=. =Ynnä= appears to be a contracted essive from =yksi=; and =ja= and =toki= to be borrowed words.

INTERJECTIONS.

1. _Of joy_—=aha=, =ahaa=, =hei=.

2. _Laughter_—=haha=, =hihi=.

3. _Grief_—=ai=, =aiai=, =voi=, =oi=, =voivoi=.

4. _Mockery_—=ähä=, =kutti=, =piti=, =piti-piti=.

5. _Astonishment_—=no=, =noh=, =ha=, =kah=, =kas=.

6. _Disgust_—=hyi=, =hyihyi=, =ui=, =uiui=.

SYNTAX.

Finnish sentences are formed of the same elements as those found in other European languages—subjects, predicates, objects, attributes, etc.; but, as the simplest phrases offer certain peculiarities, it is well, before analysing the use of the various forms, to give some general rules.

_The Subject._

I. The Subject is in the nominative case if it is _total_, that is to say, if something is predicated of the whole of the subject. Thus, =ihmiset kuolevat=, _men die_, because the verb applies to the whole race of men; =lapset tulevat=, _the children come_, that is to say, _all the children in question_. Personal pronouns and a substantive in the singular always are in the nominative, when subject to a sentence. In other words, the subject is put in the nominative, (1) when the proposition is universal. =Ihmiset kuolevat=, _men die_; =linnut lentävät=, _birds fly_. (2) When it is preceded by the definite article or other determinative adjective in English. =Sotamiehet läksivät=, _the soldiers set out_; =nämät pojat olevat ahkerat=, _these boys are industrious_. (3) When the subject is a single definite substantive or pronoun, which is really the same as the case of an universal proposition.

II. But the subject is put in the partitive case, if something is predicated, not of its whole extent, but of part of it. Thus, one says =viini on hyvää=, _wine is good_; =viini on pöydällä=, _the wine is on the table_; but =viiniä on pöydällä=, _there is some wine on the table_. Similarly, =miehet tulevat=, _the men are coming_; but =miehiä tulee=, _some men are coming_.

It is to be noticed—

(1) That in negative phrases, where the verb is =ei ole=, =ei näy=, =ei kuulu=, =ei tunnu=, etc. (which are generally rendered in English by such phrases as ‘there is no,’ or ‘there is not’), the subject is always in the partitive, e.g. =siellä ei ole ketään=, _there is nobody there_; =tässä joessa ei ole kaloja=, _there are no fish in this river_.

(2) The partitive can only be the subject to an intransitive verb, because the mere fact of any word being the subject to a transitive verb implies that the whole or a definite part of the subject is regarded as acting. Thus, one can say, =varkaita tuli talooni=, _some thieves came into my house_; but _some thieves stole my things_ must be rendered by =varkaat= (_or_ =jotkut varkaat=) =varastivat tavarani=.

The subject can be altogether omitted if it is a pronoun of the first or second person, and also in certain impersonal expressions, like =tuulee=, _it is windy_. In such sentences as =on mahdotonta tehdä sitä=, _it is impossible to do this_, the verbal noun is to be regarded as the subject.

Such sentences as _one says_, or _people say_, where the subject is indefinite, are expressed in Finnish either by the passive verb (_v._ p. 181), or by the third person plural, no noun or pronoun being employed to represent the subject. =Sanovat pääskysten jo tulleen=, _they say the swallows have already come_; =Venäjällä hakkaavat paljo metsää=, _they cut a great deal of wood in Russia_.

The third person sing. is also used in this sense: =kesällä elää vaikka ilmalla=, _in summer one can live easily_ (literally, _on air_); =tekee minkän jaksaa=, _one does as much work as one can_.

The second person sing. is also used in this impersonal sense, much as in Russian. =Kävelet kadulla, et näe mitään, mutta yht’äkkiä putoat kuopaan=, _one walks along the street, sees nothing, and suddenly tumbles into a hole_.

_The Predicate._

The verb of a sentence usually agrees in number with the subject, if the latter is in the nominative. But

(1) If the subject is in the partitive, either sing. or plural, the verb is always in the sing. The real subject of the verb in such cases is not the partitive itself, but such a word as =joukko=, =paljo=, or =vähä= understood before it.

(2) If the subject is a noun with a numeral (which in Finnish requires the partitive after it), the verb is also in the singular.

(3) When the verb =olla= is used with the adessive in the construction rendered by the verb ‘have’ in English, it always remains in the 3rd sing., no matter what the subject may be.

(4) In proverbs, the Kalevala, and popular speech generally, a singular verb is very frequently found with a plur. nominative. Such an irregularity is clearly rendered much easier and less glaring by the analogy of the cases quoted above.

The verb =olla=, _to be_, is sometimes omitted, especially in proverbial phrases.

=Oma maa mansikka, muu maa mustikka=, _one’s own land is a strawberry, foreign lands are only blackberries_. =Ei pyyssä kahden jakoa=, _a partridge is not enough for two_.

If the predicate takes the form of an auxiliary with a noun or adjective, this latter may be put in several cases.

I. In the nominative, when the complement expresses a quality inherent in the subject, without any reference to other things.

II. But it is put in the partitive if the subject is regarded as referred to a class in common with which the subject shares the quality in question.

Thus, =veitset ovat terevät= means _these knives_, or _the knives are sharp_; but =veitset ovat teräviä= means _knives are sharp_, or _belong to the class of sharp things_. =Kivi on kova=, _the stone is hard_, i.e. not a soft stone; =kivi on kovaa=, _stone is a hard substance_.

It is noticeable that—

(_a_) If the subject is in the sing., and denotes a living being, the complement must be in the nominative; one must say =ihminen on kuolevainen=, not =kuolevaista=.

(_b_) If the subject denotes a part of the body, the complement must be also in the nominative: =Hiukset ovat mustat=, _the hair is black_. =Kädet ovat tarpeelliset=, _hands are necessary_.

III. The complement is put in the essive if it denotes the state in which a thing is at a given time. Thus, =isäni on kipeänä=, _my father is (now) ill_; =isäni on kipeä=, _my father is an invalid_. =Hän on pappi=, _he is a clergyman_; but =hän on jo kauan ollut pappina=, _he has long been a clergyman_. =Suomenmaa on osa Venäjän valtakuntaa=, _Finland is a part of the Russian empire_; but =tähän vuosisataan asti Suomenmaa oli osana Ruotsin valtakunnasta=, _till the beginning of this century Finland formed part of the kingdom of Sweden_. Often there is little difference between the nominative and essive. Thus one can say either =sydän on suruja täysi=, or =täynnä=, _the heart is full of woe_; but =täynnä= gives a more precise and literal idea of fullness than =täysi=.

IV. With the other auxiliaries, signifying to become, or pass into a state (=tulla=, =ruveta=, =muuttua=, etc.), the complement is put in the translative. =Ilma muuttuu lämpimäksi=, _the weather grows warm_. =Poika rupesi palvelijaksi=, _the boy began to be a servant_. =Ukko käy heikoksi=, _the old man gets weak_. =Hän joutui työmieheksi=, _he became a workman_.

Such sentences as _it is impossible to go_, or _it is necessary for you to go_, may be rendered in Finnish as =mahdotonta on mennä=, or =tarpeellista on että menette=; but in both cases the real subject is the infinitive, or the sentence with =että= which replaces it.

In such sentences the adjective, combined with the verb =olla=, can be put either in the partitive or in the nominative; but it is very hard, not only to give rules for the employment of the two cases, but even to state the exact difference of meaning between them. As has been seen above, =kivi on kova= means _the stone is hard_, but =kivi on kovaa=, _the stone belongs to the class of hard things_. The same distinction appears to prevail in the case under consideration, but, as the difference is very subtle, it is not surprising that it is often hard to trace. On the whole, the partitive is more usual, because the use of the nominative implies, strictly speaking, that the subject and the complement are co-extensive. But the nominative is more definite, inasmuch as it vaguely implies the existence of particular personal or temporal conditions. Thus, =parasta on mennä= is the equivalent of _it is best to go_; and it is perfectly logical to use the partitive, as clearly it is not meant that the terms _going_ and _best_ are co-extensive. But =paras on mennä= means rather _the best thing for us under the circumstances is to go_; and in this case the use of the nominative is also logical, because the two terms are co-extensive. It can be easily imagined that with so slight a distinction the nominative and partitive are used almost indifferently in most cases. Thus, it is equally correct to say =on surkea nähdä sinua tuossa tilassa=, or =on surkeata=, _it is sad to see you in this position_. But it is noticeable that—

(1) =Parempi= and =hyvä= are always used in the nominative. =Parempi on odottaa=, _it is better to wait_. =Hyvä on olla terveenä=, _it is good to be healthy_. In the case of =parempi=, at any rate, this is quite natural, as there can hardly be said to be a class of better things without reference to particular circumstances. But this point cannot be pressed, as other comparatives are used in the partitive.

(2) In such phrases as =on mahdotonta=, _it is impossible_; =onko luvallistra=, _is it allowable_; =onko mahdollista=, _is it possible?_ the partitive is nearly always used.

_The Object._

The object, like the subject, can be either total or partial. It is regarded as total when the whole of the object is represented as affected by the action of a transitive verb, and partial when only a part of it is affected by such action. Thus in =mies ampui linnut=, _the man shot the birds_, the object is total; but in =mies ampui lintuja=, _the man shot some birds_, it is partial, because in the first case no birds are thought of except those shot, who all come under the action of the verb, whereas in the second there is a vague reference to all existing birds, of which some only have been shot. Further, the object is regarded as partial whenever the action of the verb is continuous or incomplete, because the action is, so to speak, extending over the object, but has not yet embraced the whole of it. Thus, in =minä kirjoitan kirjettä=, _I am writing a letter_, the object is regarded as partial; but in =minä olen kirjoittanut kirjeen=, _I have written a letter_, it is total. The object of a negative verb is always in the partitive.

The object may be put—

1. In the accusative; 2. In the partitive; 3. In the nominative.

_By accusative is meant that case which corresponds in the singular with the genitive, and in the plural with the nominative._

I. The total object of an active finite verb, in any mood but the imperative, is put in the accusative, unless it is a cardinal number.

=Hän myi hevosen=, _he sold the horse_. =Veljeni panee rahat taskuun=, _my brother puts the money in his pocket_. =Ammuin pyyt metsässä=, _I shot the partridges in the wood_; but =ammuin viisi pyytä=, _I shot five partridges_.

II. The Object is put in the partitive if it is partial, whatever the verb may be. From what has been said above it will be seen that this implies that the partitive must be used:—

(1) When the object is strictly speaking partial and denotes a part of something, not a whole. =Antakaa minulle maitoa=, =teetä=, etc., _give me some milk_, _some tea_, etc. =Hän söi leipää ja voita=, _he ate some bread and butter_. =Isä antoi rahaa pojalle=, _the father gave the boy some money_.

(2) When the verb is negative. =En saanut kirjaa=, _I did not receive the book_. =Me emme tunne ystävääsi=, _we do not know your friend_. =Älä revi kirjaa=, _don’t tear the book_. =Lasta ei rakasteta=, _the child is not loved_.