Part 4

[Music:

Dorian Octave. Signature B♭ Phrygian Octave. Signature F♯

Lydian Octave. Signature F, C and G sharps. Mizo-Lydian Octave. Signature B and E flats.

Hypo-Dorian Octave. Hypo-Phrygian Octave. Signature F and C sharps.

Hypo-Lydian Octave. Signature F, C, G & D sharps.]

These were fixed sounds, but the tuning of the remaining six strings _might be changed_ at will; therefore, a series of sounds belonging to any one of these scales could be made; and it will be seen, on examining the following table, that all the seven scales may be represented _without changing the extreme notes_, A to A. Suppose we make the B flat. Now B-flat is the characteristic note of the Dorian Scale, in our term, its signature. Therefore this octave would be called the Dorian Octave, _not_ Dorian Scale. We speak of a scale as beginning and ending on its _keynote_; if it does not, we call it a scale passage in such and such a key.

The notes marked + are the keynotes (_Mese_). It will be seen at once that the positions of the halftones differ in _each_ of these octaves. One cannot help feeling a slight suspicion that some confusion between scale and octave had a great deal to do with the growth of the Ecclesiastical Scales.

One of the latest of the ancient writers on music, =Claudius Ptolemy= (about 130 A. D.), proposed that all these octaves should be transposed a _fourth lower_; this made the Dorian Octave E to E (all naturals). One result of this change is that many authorities at the present time call this the Dorian Scale, whereas it is evident that it is simply the Dorian Octave, as given above, transposed a _fourth lower_. Other scales were added from time to time, called _Hyper_-Dorian, _Hyper_-Phrygian, etc., a _fourth above_ the standard scales; but it is very uncertain whether they were in practical use; they were probably purely matters of theory.

=Characteristics Attributed to the Different Greek Scales=.—The Greeks attributed many fanciful characteristics to the various modes or scales, much as some modern musicians, Berlioz, for example, do to the different keys. But all seem to have agreed as to the Dorian. This was considered the true Greek mode, and was called severe, firm and manly, suitable for martial songs. The Lydian mode was esteemed to be effeminate, suited to love songs, possibly because the Lydian Octave corresponds with the scale of A major, and a major scale was not relished by the Greeks, any more than it was by the early ecclesiastical musicians. A more probable explanation of this attribution of different characters to the different scales is, that it was customary to use certain modes for songs on certain subjects, and the character of the poetry was transferred to the music.

=The Greek Chromatic Scale= differed altogether from what _we_ call a chromatic scale. It was made by _lowering_ the pitch of the _fourth_ and _seventh_ strings above the _keynote_ a halftone. Supposing the octave lyre to be tuned to the Hypo-Dorian Mode or Scale, it would begin and end on the Keynote (_Mese_), thus:

[Music]

Now, by lowering D and G we get the following scale:

[Music]

This is the scale that was called Chromatic. It is said to have been at one time the most popular of all the scales, a statement we can easily credit, since it contains in itself the two world-wide five-note or _Pentatonic_ Scales, commonly known as the Scotch or Irish Scales, the most widely distributed of all scales in Europe, Asia and America.

[Music: Major pentatonic scale Minor pentatonic scale]

=The Greek Enharmonic Scale=.—The scale called Enharmonic was made thus: The fourth and seventh strings were lowered a whole tone; that is, to the pitch of the second and sixth, the second and sixth were lowered a _quartertone_, thus:

[Music]

C-flat is supposed to be halfway between B and C; F-flat halfway between E and F. Our modern system does not provide for the notation of quartertones.

=Greek Instruments=.—The standard instrument of the Greeks was the =Lyre=. It bore many names, as Lyre, Tetrachordon, Chelys, Phorminx, Cithara, etc. There may have been slight _differences_ in the _size and the number of the strings_, but great uncertainty prevails on this point. Under the name of =Flute= (_Aulos_) they seem to have included both _Flutes_ proper and instruments of the _hautboy_ or _clarinet_ family. These instruments bore a bewildering number of names, the exact meaning of which is lost. Judging from the pictorial representations that remain, the Greek instruments were inferior both in variety and extent to those of the Egyptians. They seem to have made little use of the Harp, of which instrument the Egyptians had a great variety. The Greeks seem to have used instruments chiefly, if not solely, to accompany the voice; and they appear never to have combined large numbers of instruments for any purpose. Even in their tragedies, which were performed in immense theatres open to the sky, the Chorus was limited to fifteen men, accompanied by two flutes. When accompanying the voice with the lyre they may have occasionally struck the fourth, fifth or octave of the vocal melody; but, in general, they played the voice part. Their most highly developed instrument was a variety of lyre, the strings of which passed over a bridge placed one-third of the strings’ length from the lower end of the lyre, thus causing the lower part of the string to sound the octave of the upper part. The shorter part of the string was played with a plectrum in the right hand, the longer part by the fingers of the left hand. This instrument was called =Magadis=—from _Magas_, a bridge. The term _Magadize_ was eventually used to signify playing or singing in octaves, and was _synonymous_ with _Antiphony_.

=Greek Musical Notation=.—Our knowledge of Greek musical notation is very defective, being derived from only four or five specimens of ancient music, and a few small fragments. They appear to have used a _separate notation for each mode_, and these four hymns are apparently all in the same mode, but authorities differ as to the mode. They used the letters of their alphabet, both capital and small, written in various positions, sometimes upright, sometimes lying on one side. The notation for the lyre differed from that used for the voice. The letters representing the _vocal_ part were written _above the words_, those representing the _instrumental_ part, _below_ the _words_. These _letters represented_ the _pitch_ of the sounds, but _not_ their _duration_. The duration was regulated by the _meter_ of the poetry. Instead of a portion of one of these hymns, the first three lines of our National Hymn are given as a sample of this notation:

R R Φ Γ R Φ σ σ Ρ σ Φ R Φ R Γ R My country ’tis of thee, Sweet land of liberty, Of thee I sing.

These letters have been interpreted as indicating the following sounds, the transposed Hypo-Lydian Scale in its old form; that is, the Lesser Perfect System with G sharp as its keynote.

[Music]

=Greek View of Harmony=.—The question has been much debated as to whether or not the Greeks practiced harmony. It seems hardly possible with such a defective notation; but the best argument against it is, that there is not a word in any of the extant treatises as to combinations and successions of these combinations, and it is impossible that any art of harmony should have existed unless some rules for its employment should have been evolved.

=Greek Terms in Music=.—The modern terminology of music is largely indebted to the Greek system, although many of the words have entirely changed their significance. The word Music itself, to the Greek, meant the whole circle of the sciences, especially Astronomy and Mathematics. Melody meant the rising and falling of the voice in either speaking or singing. Harmonia meant rather what we call Melody than our Harmony. This latter, namely, the sounding together of different sounds, was called Symphony. Antiphony originally meant singing in octaves, that is, men with women or boys. Chromatic and Enharmonic have already been explained. Diapason, now applied chiefly to organ stops, originally meant the octave; that is, “through all.” Diatonic has nearly retained its original meaning. Tone, Semitone and Tetrachord have retained their meaning, with the exception that in the modern tetrachord the halftone is at the other end.

REFERENCES.

Monro.—The Modes of Ancient Greek Music.

Rowbotham.—History of Music.

Oxford History of Music, Vol. I.

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS.

What was the Greek use of the term Octave; “Dorian Octave,” for example?

What change did Claudius Ptolemy suggest? What confusion resulted?

What is the meaning of the prefix “Hyper”?

Explain the Greek Chromatic Scale.

Explain the Greek Enharmonic Scale.

What was the standard Greek musical instrument? What names were given to modifications of it?

What instruments were comprehended under the term _Aulos_?

How were the instruments used in accompanying the voice?

What is meant by “magadizing”?

Give an account of Greek musical notation.

Did the Greeks use “Harmony” as we understand that term?

Name some musical terms that come from the Greek. Berlioz gives the characters of different keys in his book on Instrumentation. “Auld Lang Syne” is a pentatonic melody, scale of F, with fourth and seventh omitted. Any series of five notes on the black keys of the piano will make a pentatonic scale, major character. The language of music was determined by scholars, hence the use of so many terms with Greek and Latin roots.

LESSON V.

ECCLESIASTICAL SYSTEM.

=Rome the New Centre=.—The Power that rules in the affairs of men seems to have made provision for the elevation of the whole race by diffusing at intervals of centuries, the treasures of art, science and thought accumulated by a nation of unusual power and energy. Egypt dominated the northern part of Africa, the shores of the Mediterranean and the western slopes of Asia Minor, and in course of time yielded to the advance of the Greeks, but leaving behind, as a legacy, much that has had enduring value. What had once been centred in one nation, under the control of one caste, the priests, was spread through much of the known world. Greece, in turn, shaped the destinies of expanding civilization. In the Greek social life free art played a great part; wherever the Greeks went as merchants and colonists, they carried with them the principles of Greek art, including music. Greek musicians were accounted stars of the first magnitude in Egypt, in the Greek colonies of Italy, and later in Rome, which, after the fall of Greece as a political factor, became the political, social and artistic centre of the world; through her conquests and subsequent colonizing diffusing throughout a larger world than Egypt and Greece knew, an increased wealth of thought and action which greatly influenced later generations.

=Rome Dependent Upon Greece=.—The Romans did not show a native instinct for art. Their national qualities were essentially warlike, and were developed by years of struggle for existence. A people whose organized life was political and martial, and for so long found expression first in defence, later in conquest, would not develop a true art life. As they grew stronger they built up their collections by pillage and by purchase; they were taught music, oratory, architecture, sculpture by Greeks who sought the capital of the world. Roman nobles imitated Greek customs, learned the Greek language and literature, cultivated music according to Greek methods, used Greek instruments, such as the cithara, lyre and flute, sang Greek songs and formed companies of singers and players to furnish entertainment at their feasts and at the public spectacles. The Roman drama was modified by Greek principles, and Greek actors replaced Roman artists; the pantomime was borrowed from Egypt. Music was a favorite distraction in the high ranks of Roman society, and men known to history were skilful players or singers—Sylla, Flaccus, Calpurnius Piso, Titus, Caligula, Hadrian, and, best known of all, Nero.

=Growth of Christianity=.—While the Roman Empire, in its turn, had served the purpose of the Ruling Power in the affairs of men, in secret a new force was gaining strength, one that was soon to drive pagan arts and pleasures from open cultivation. In the Catacombs, in remote sections of the great city, pursued, hunted like beasts, martyrized, the Christians clung to their faith with its simple rites of worship, in which the singing of songs was a marked feature. Whence these songs came is by no means certain, the prevailing opinion being that they were of Greek origin, modified by Hebrew influence.[7] In the course of years songs were introduced in the Christian service with no other warrant than that of tradition. During the years of persecution no systematic cultivation of music was possible. Later, when Constantine accepted the Cross, 325 A. D., and Christianity had triumphed over Paganism, the abuses became such that the ecclesiastical authorities set themselves to the task of reform and of establishing a system of song for the use of the Church.

[Music: Tonus Peregrinus as a chant]

=Origin of the Church Scales=.—It is absolutely unknown when or by whom the system of scales, known as the Church Scales, was invented. The latest writer on the Greek System was =Claudius Ptolemy= (about 130 A. D.). In 330, =Pope Sylvester= established a school for training church singers, but we have no information as to the system he employed. The name of =Ambrose=, Bishop of Milan (333-397), has for centuries been associated with what are called the _Authentic_ Scales, but there is no valid evidence whatever that he had anything to do with their adoption. The name of =Pope Gregory= (540-604) has also been associated with another set of scales called _Plagal_, with as little authority as in the previous case. There does not appear to have existed any system of notation in the time of Ambrose or Gregory. The Greek notation by letters was forgotten, and the very insufficient system of notation by Neumes had not been invented. The only writer of any authority after Ptolemy was Boethius, and he did more to confuse the subject of music than to explain it.

=Foundation of the Church Scales=.—But if we know nothing of the inventor of the Church Scales, or of the way in which they grew into their final form, we are, nevertheless, perfectly well informed of the fully-developed system which, it must be remarked, grew out of a misunderstanding of the Greek Scales. The Church Scales were founded on the Greater Perfect System of the Greeks, with this restriction, namely, that it was _not transposable_; whereas, we have seen that the various Greek modes were transpositions of either the Lesser or Greater Systems.

[Music]

This is the series of sounds from which the Church Scales were made. None of them might be _altered_ by sharp or flat, _except_ the _B_ in the second octave (and this was a later addition which was probably owing to a remembrance of the Lesser Perfect System in which the B was flat.) The Greek names were retained for the Church Scales, but as not one of the notes was inflected, it follows that the _halftones_ occur in _different_ places in every scale. The scales to which these names were given were called Authentic, those with the prefix _Hypo_ were called Plagal. In the table on the next page, the Greek and Church Scales, also the Greek _octaves_ are given side by side.

=Confusion Between the Systems=.—We may gather from this table how the confusion between Dorian and Phrygian has arisen. The Phrygian Octave is identical with the Church Dorian, and the Dorian Octave with the Church Phrygian. A proof that the Church Scales originated in the way indicated may be found in the fact that the Church and Greek Hypo-Dorian Scales are identical, this being the only Greek Scale without a sharp or flat. The Church Hypo-Lydian was also called the Ionian Scale; its arrangement of tones and semitones is the _same_ as that of the _modern major scale_. It was not considered appropriate for church music, being looked upon as soft, effeminate and lascivious, by both Greeks and mediæval churchmen.

[Music:

GREEK OCTAVES CHURCH SCALES GREEK SCALES

At the pitch as transposed by Ptolemy

Phrygian Octave Dorian Dorian

Dorian Octave Phrygian Phrygian

Hypo-Lydian Octave Lydian Lydian

Hypo-Phrygian Octave Mixo-Lydian Mixo-Lydian

Hypo-Dorian Octave Hypo-Dorian Hypo-Dorian

Mixo-Lydian Octave Hypo-Phrygian Hypo-Phrygian

Lydian Octave Hypo-Lydian Hypo-Lydian

Phrygian Octave Hypo-Mixo-Lydian]

=Eight Modes in Use=.—The Church Scales were numbered from one to eight; the Authentic Scales were given the odd, and the Plagal Scales the even numbers, thus:

1. Dorian 2. Hypo-Dorian related scales. 3. Phrygian 4. Hypo-Phrygian related scales. 5. Lydian 6. Hypo-Lydian related scales. 7. Mixo-Lydian 8. Hypo-Mixo-Lydian related scales.

A melody in an Authentic Scale had to end on its Keynote, but a melody in a Plagal Scale ended on the Keynote of its _related_ Authentic Scale. Observe that the Dorian and Hypo-Mixo-Lydian Scales are identical; but while the former had to end on the Keynote, D, the latter ended on G, which is the fourth of its scale, and Keynote of its _related_ Authentic Scale.

Traces of these Authentic and Plagal Scales may be found in many old folk-songs. Thus, the melody of the “Last Rose of Summer” begins on the Keynote, rises in the course of the melody to the octave, but ends by falling to the Keynote; it is therefore Authentic. On the other hand, the melody of “Robin Adair” begins on the fourth _below_ the Keynote, rises to its octave, but ends on the fourth _above_ its initial note and is Plagal; thus:

[Music: Range Range

Initial Final Initial Final

LAST ROSE OF SUMMER. ROBIN ADAIR.]

The term _Hyper_ (above) was sometimes applied to the Authentic Scales. In the Greek System the _Hyper_ Scales were the same distance _above_ the standard scales that the _Hypo_ Scales were _below_. Although twelve modes were theoretically admitted in church music, it was for the most part confined to the eight modes given above.

=The Dominant=.—In addition to the keynote there was another note in every scale of almost equal importance, called the _Dominant_. This name has been retained in the modern system, but with a total _change_ of meaning. In the Church Scales it meant the _Reciting Note_, that is, the note on which the principal part of the words was chanted. In all the _Authentic_ Scales but the Phrygian, the _fifth_ of the scale is the _Dominant_; in the _Phrygian_ the _sixth_ is the _Dominant_, because the B was a changeable note, that is, might be natural or flat. The _Dominants_ of the _Plagal_ Scales are a _third below_ the Dominants of the related Authentic Scales, except in the Hypo-Mixo-Lydian, in which the Dominant is a second below that of its related Authentic Scale. Therefore the _Dominant_ is the _sixth_ of all the _Hypo_ Scales, but the _Hypo-Phrygian_ and _Hypo-Mixo-Lydian_, in which it is the _seventh_.

=Hucbald’s Scale=.—Two attempts were made in the 10th century to construct new scales, first by =Hucbald=, who founded his series of sounds on a tetrachord, in which the halftone was between the second and third, thus: A B C D. His object seems to have been to obtain a series in which a succession of perfect fourths and fifths might be secured, for which purpose he made use of the following series of sounds:

[Music]

In the first tetrachord B was flat, in the third natural; in the fourth, F was sharp. As to the use made of this scale, little or nothing is known.

=Guido’s Scale=.—The other attempt, usually attributed to _Guido_, a contemporary of Hucbald, resulted in the _Hexachord_ Scale (six-note scale). This scale was formed by adding a whole tone above and below the Hucbald tetrachord, thus: G, A, B, C, D, E. To complete the series of Hexachord Scales, another sound was added, namely: the G below the A on which the Greek scales and their derivatives, the Church scales, began. The first seven letters of the Roman alphabet were used to name the sounds already in use, hence to indicate this sound the Greek letter, Gamma, was adopted. At the same time the syllables _ut_—_re_—_mi_—_fa_—_sol_—_la_ were used to name the sounds of every hexachord (precisely as the movable Do is used now); hence this lowest sound was called _Gamma-ut_, corrupted into Gamut. The sounds in the series were indicated by placing after the letter the syllables that indicated its position in all the hexachords in which it was found, thus:

G A B—C D E C D E—F G A

1. _Gamma—ut_. 2. _A—re_. 3. _B—mi_. 4. _C—Fa—ut_, because C is _fa_ in the first, and _ut_ in the second hexachord. Consequently, to a mediæval musician, _C—fa—ut_ meant what we would call C, second space bass clef.

The following table gives all the Hexachord Scales with the names of the sounds. It is of interest because this system of nomenclature persisted long after the one which gave rise to it was obsolete.

{ E la { D la sol Super { C sol fa Acute { B♮ mi { B♭ fa { A la mi re

{ G sol re ut { F fa ut { E la mi Acute { D la sol re Octave { C sol fa ut { B♮ mi { B♭ fa { A la mi re

{ G sol re ut { F fa ut { E la mi Grave { D sol re Octave { C fa ut { B mi { A re { Γ ut

The Hexachords in which the B was flat were called Soft (_Mollis_); those in which B was natural, Hard (_Dura_); the term _mollis_ has been retained in the French word _Bemol_, a flat, and in the German name for a minor key, _Moll_. The word _dura_ (hard) is also retained in the German as a name for the major key _Dur_. When the letters were used as a means of notation, the sound B-flat was indicated by the old form of the letter b, which has been retained as the sign for a flat. This was called B _rotundum_ (round B); when B natural was wanted, a stroke was put on the right side of the ♭, called B _quadratum_ (squared B), the sign to this day for a natural.

REFERENCE.

Oxford History of Music, Vol. I.

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS.

What city became the centre of life after Athens and Greece fell?

What new influence was shaping in the Roman Empire?

When did music receive official attention and reform?

What names are associated with the early history of Church Music?

On which Greek system were the Church Scales founded?

What difference exists between the Greek and the Church Scales as to the positions of the halftones?

What is meant by Authentic and Plagal?

What were the rules in regard to a melody in the Authentic forms? What Plagal? Give an example of each.

What is meant by Dominant? Was the position of the Dominant the same in each scale? Name some variations.

What attempts were made to construct new scales?

What is meant by “Gamut”?

What is meant by C—fa—ut?