Part 35

The first _Journal of Forestry_, a monthly publication, ventured into the world as a private enterprise, edited by Dr. Hough, soon after the Forestry Congress in Cincinnati, but it survived just one year, vanishing for lack of readers. This was followed by irregularly appearing _Forestry Bulletins_, of which the writer prepared four under the aegis of the American Forestry Association.

In 1886, the Pennsylvania Forestry Association began the publication of a bi-monthly journal, _Forest Leaves_, which has persisted to this day. In 1895, Dr. John Gifford launched another bi-monthly, the _New Jersey Forester_, soon to change its name to _The Forester_, and under that name, three years later, taken over by the American Forestry Association, continued as _Forestry and Irrigation_, changed to _Conservation_ and now again changed to _American Forestry_. Now, half a dozen or more similar publications emanate from the various State Associations. In this connection there should not be forgotten the journal, _Garden and Forest_, edited by Professor C. S. Sargent, which for ten years, from 1888 to 1897, did much to enlighten the public on forestry matters.

Some provision for technical education was made long before opportunity for its application had arisen, and, indeed, before any professional foresters were in existence to do the teaching. The new doctrine attracted the attention of educational institutions, and the desire to assist in the popular movement led to the introduction of the subject, at least by name, into their curricula; the professor of botany or of horticulture, adding “forestry” to his title, and explaining in a few lectures the objects, and, as far as he knew them, the methods of forestry; or, at least some lectures on dendrology and forest geography were introduced in the botanical courses. By 1897, twenty institutions--land grant colleges--had in this way introduced the subject.

Perhaps the first attempt to present systematically a whole course of technical forestry matter to a class of students was a series of twelve lectures, delivered by the writer, at the Massachusetts College of Agriculture in 1887, and another to students of political economy at Wisconsin University in 1897.

The era of professional forest schools, however, was, inaugurated in 1898, when the writer organized the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell University, and almost simultaneously Dr. Schenck opened a private school at Biltmore.

A year later, another Forest school was opened at Yale University, an endowment of the Pinchots, father and sons. In 1903, the University of Michigan added a professional department of forestry, and then followed a real flood of educational enthusiasm, one institution after another seeing the necessity for adding the subject as an integral part to its courses. Before there were enough competent men in the field, some twenty colleges or universities called for teachers, besides private institutions. An inevitable result of this over-production of forest schools and of foresters all at once must be an overcrowding of the profession with mediocre men before the profession is really fully established.

Brief reference to the history of the first school, established by the State of New York, may be of interest, as exemplifying in a striking manner the political troubles besetting reforms under republican conditions. But for a similar occurrence in France (see p. 242), this case might be unique in the history of educational institutions. Although the school thrived almost beyond expectation, having in its fourth year attained in numbers to 70, larger than any French or German forest school at the time, and readily finding employment for its graduates, it suddenly came to an end in 1903. Its appropriation, unanimously voted in the Legislature, was vetoed by the Governor, on the alleged ground that the silvicultural methods applied in the demonstration forest of the College “had been subjected to grave criticism.” It is true the only silvicultural method officially sanctioned (by the Forest Service), the selection forest, had not been applied, yet the war against the College being waged by two wealthy bankers of New York and the well-known character of the then Governor suggest that other “considerations” than mere criticism of professional judgment were at the bottom of his action.

As from the start, the federal Forestry Bureau naturally continued in ever increasing degree to be the educator of the nation, not only as regards popular conceptions and attitudes, but as regards technical matter. Its bulletins, circulars, and reports on the subjects which come under investigation form the bulk of the American literature on the technical side of the subject. During the first 20 years of its existence, some 20,000 pages of printed matter were produced, and the next decade increased the crop of information apace. At first intended for popular propaganda, the matter printed was naturally argumentative, statistical and descriptive, but gradually more and more technical matter filled the pages, and now most of the publications are of technical nature.

One of the first extensive and important lines of investigation undertaken by the Division was that into the characteristics and strength, the timber physics, of American woods, which in its comprehensiveness commanded the admiration of even the Germans, and gave rise to a series of reports. The biology of American species, more or less exhaustively studied, was also begun in the old Division, as well as forest surveys, etc.

By 1902, enough professional interest was in the country to make the publication of a professional journal possible and desirable, the _Forestry Quarterly_ being launched by the writer, with a Board of Editors chosen mainly from the forest schools.

The first association of professional foresters was formed in 1900--the _Society of American Foresters_--which issues from time to time proceedings containing technical discussions.

The technical book literature, partly due, no doubt, to the overpowering publication facilities of the federal government, is still scanty, and good textbooks especially are still lacking in most branches.

A series of ephemeral popular books answered the demands of earlier days, but outside of Professor _Henry S. Graves’_ volumes on _Forest Mensuration_ and lately on _The Principles of Handling Woodlands_, and a few minor aid books and lecture notes, there is as yet nothing of permanent value to be recorded. The writers’ own publication, _Economics of Forestry_, is intended less for foresters than students of political economy.

Three monumental works can be mentioned in the dendrological line, however, namely the 10th volume of the XII Census (1880) on the _Forests of North America_; Micheaux and Nuttall’s _North American Silva_ in 5 volumes, 1865; and C. S. Sargent’s _Silva of the United States_, in 14 magnificent volumes,--three publications which can take rank with any similar literature anywhere.

INSULAR POSSESSIONS.

The Spanish War, in 1898, brought to the United States new outlying territory, over 150,000 square miles, in three locations, the relationship as regards government varying in the three cases, namely Porto Rico, the Sandwich Islands, and the Philippine Islands, besides several smaller islands in the Pacific Ocean.

While the latter are only temporarily under control or tutelage of the United States, and are expected sooner or later to attain complete self government, Hawaii was annexed as a Territory in the same sense as all other Territories, the inhabitants having become citizens of the United States, while Porto Rico is a dependency with partial self-government, but its inhabitants do not enjoy citizenship in the States.

All these islands are located in the tropics and hence the composition of the forest is of tropical species.

Commercially, the forests of Porto Rico and of Hawaii are relatively of little value, but their protective value is paramount, and a conservative policy is needed in order to preserve the water supply for agricultural use (sugar plantations in Hawaii) and to prevent erosion.

For Porto Rico, a beginning of forest policy was made by setting aside, in 1903, the Luquillo Forest Reservation, some 20,000 acres in the Eastern mountainous part of the island, which is under direct control of the United States government. The rest of public lands and forests was placed under the Department of the Interior of the island.

In Hawaii, even before annexation, a movement on the part of the Sugar Planters Association was made in 1897, to induce the insular government to devise protective measures. The result was the appointment of a Committee who made a report in which the writer had a hand. But not until 1903 was a Board of Commissioners of Agriculture and Forestry established, a Superintendent of Forestry appointed, an organization of district foresters effected, and a number of forest reservations established. The principle of State forest was fully recognized by planning the gradual withdrawal of some 300,000 acres and by beginning the extension of forested area by plantations. In 1910, 23 reserves with an area of 575,000 acres had been made. Distribution of plant material and of advice to planters is also part of the policy. Annual Reports are issued which attest the good common sense in the administration.

In the Philippine Islands, a territory of 120,000 square miles, largely mountainous, not only the protective but the commercial value of the timberlands is considerable. The extent is variously estimated as covering between 40 and 50 million acres (50% of total area), much of it virgin, and 16 million acres of it commercially valuable. Of the seven hundred odd species of trees, mostly heavy woods, composing the forest, some 160 are marketable at home and in China; yet almost fifty per cent. of the home consumption is imported from the States, owing to absence or inaccessibility of softwoods, and high cost due to excessive expense of present logging methods.

When the United States took charge of the islands it was found that the Spaniards had since 1863 a forestry service, manned by Spanish foresters, and in the lower ranks by Filipinos. To be sure, the activities of this forestry bureau went hardly beyond the collection of dues for timber licenses, which yielded little more than the cost of the service, although on paper excellent instructions were found elaborated.

It so happened that an officer of the American army, Captain George P. Ahern, had for some time given attention to forestry matters in the States, and he naturally was placed in charge of this bureau, in 1900. There were found to be around one million acres private and church property, the rest being considered State lands, but all private owners were required to register their holdings before being allowed to exercise their rights. A system of licenses for cutting timber, and of free use permits to the poor population was continued after Spanish models. Not only was an efficient administration gradually secured, but the technical side of dendrological and silvicultural knowledge was developed as rapidly as possible under the able administration of Captain Ahern, a continuously growing literature being the result.

INDEX.

ADMINISTRATION, Austria, 167; Canada, 424; Denmark, 316; Finland, 281; France, 217, 219, 223, 224; Germany, 80, 120ff; Great Britain, 375; Greece, 332, 333; Hungary, 181; India, 396; Italy, 339; Japan, 450ff; Norway, 309, 311; Portugal, 362; Roumania, 325, 327; Russia, 268, 269; Spain, 359; Sweden, 291, 301, 302; Switzerland, 197; United States, 485, 486, 488. Africa, 439. Alabama, 496. Albania, 322. Algiers, 223, 250. Allmende (Germany), 28. Allotment methods, 73, 114, 120, 303. André, 115. Andrews, 474. Arabia, 15. Arborday, Germany, 63; Italy, 348; Japan, 449; Spain, 360; United States, 477. Area allotment, Austria, 170; France, 240; Germany, 114; Sweden, 303. Area division, France, 240; Germany, 40, 69, 70, 74; Russia, 274. Arnold, 272. Artaxerxes, regulations by, 10. Aschaffenburg, 146. Asia Minor, 10. Associations, Austria, 176; Canada, 435; Denmark, 319; Finland, 284; France, 247; Germany, 148; Great Britain, 378; Greece, 334; Hungary, 184; Italy, 349; Japan, 454; Norway, 314; Roumania, 326; Russia, 271, 272; Sweden, 305; Switzerland, 201; United States, 479, 480, 481, 503. Australia, 440. Austria, 152.

BADEN, 120. Baden-Powell, 390, 408. Bagneris, 242, 246. Balestrieri, 347. Ball planting, Germany, 65. Banforest, Austria, 163; Germany, 21; Great Britain, 370; Italy, 343, 344, 346; Japan, 448; Russia, 261; Switzerland, 190. Barres, 244. Baudrillart, 242, 245. Baur, 133, 137, 138, 140, 147. Bavaria, 119. Bechstein, J. M., 131, 140, 141, 142, 148. Beckman, J. G., 73, 76, 87. Beckman, J., 90, 91. Bedemar, 273. v. Behlen, 140, 150. Behm, 136. Bein and Eyber, 138. v. Berlepsch, 67, 88. Berlin forest school, 83, 84. Bern, 200. Bernhardt, 150. Bertram, 434. Betulomania (Germany), 66. Biermans, 107. Biltmore, 497. Bohemia, 170, 172, 176. Boppe, 242, 246. Borggreve, 112, 131, 138, 140, 150. Borkhausen, 140. Bose, 140. Bosnia-Herzegovina, 155, 166. Bowers, 483. Brandis, 383, 394, 402, 405, 406, 408. Braun, 132. Brémontier, 225. Brewer, 474. Breymann, 134. v. Brocke, 89. Broillard, 242, 246. Büchting, 87. Buffon, 237, 239, 245. Bühler, 202. Bulgaria, 322. Bunch planting, Germany, 108. Burgsdorf, 84, 105. Burkhardt, 108, 131, 140, 150. Butlar, 107.

CALIFORNIA, 491, 496, 497. Calipers, 134. Cameralists, Austria, 168; Germany, 57, 81, 122, 143. Canada, 409. Cape Colony, 439. Carlowitz, 64, 68, 86. Catalpa (Germany), 66. Cato, 19, 20. Ceylon, 438. Champagne, reboisement (France), 229. Chevandier, 247. Church forests, 14, 46, 55, 93. City forests (Germany), 34, 46, 56. Clavé, 238, 239. Clearing system, France, 218; Germany, 108; Italy, 338; India, 402; Sweden, 302. Cleghorn, 393. Cleopatra, 10. Cleveland, 484, 485. Clinton, 468. Cloister forests, Germany, 37, 46, 55, 93. Clovis, 29, 30. Coaz, 191, 202. Cochin China, 251. Code forestier, 220, 222. Colbert, 215. Colbert’s ordinance, France, 235, 238. Colerus, 85. Colonies, (French), 248-252; (Great Britain), 380-441. Colorado, 490, 491. Columella, 19, 20. Commissions, Austria, 162, 174; Canada, 434, 436; France, 215; Great Britain, 375, 376, 377; Hungary, 181; Italy, 342, 344, 345; Norway, 308, 309, 312; Russia, 263, 266; Spain, 355; Sweden, 295, 297, 299; United States, 475, 481, 489, 492, 493, 494. Communal forests, Austria, 158, 174; France, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, 220, 221, 222, 240; Finland, 280; Germany, 28, 46, 56, 94, 127; Hungary, 180; India, 390, 391; Italy, 339; Japan, 446; Norway, 307, 312; Russia, 259, 260; Sweden, 291, 293; Switzerland, 195. Compartment method, Germany, 61. Conifer planting, Germany, 65. Connecticut, 496, 497. Conservation, United States, 499. Conservation Board, Sweden, 299. Consumption, world, 4. Coopers Hill, 378, 406. Coppice, France, 234; Germany, 60, 110; India, 402; Italy, 17, 338; Switzerland, 199. Corporation forests, see Communal Forests. v. Cotta, 83, 99, 102, 104, 110, 113, 119, 130, 131, 135, 138, 140, 144, 145, 170, 242, 246. Cramer, 89. de Crescentiis, 85, 244. Cyprus, 10, 439.

DALHOUSIE, 393. Dalmatia, 161. Dankelmann, 140, 150. D’Arcy, 408. Dehra Dun, 407. Delaware, 497. Demontzey, 246. Denmark, 314. Diameter limit, Canada, 427; France, 235; Germany, 40, 49; Sweden, 293, 298. pricemaker, Germany, 74. Diodorus, 14, 16. Doebel, 75, 86. Dokuchaev, 273. Dombrowski, 131. Dralet, 245. Draudt, 136. Duhamel, 237, 238, 245.

EBERMAYER, 142. Eberswalde, 146. Egypt, 14, 16. Eisenach, 146. Endres, 144. Ensign, United States, 491. Entail, Germany, 129. Entomology, Germany, 142. Ethiopia, 14, 15. Evelyn’s Silva, Great Britain, 374. Experiment stations, Austria, 176; France, 239; Germany, 147; Hungary, 184; Italy, 348; Japan, 453; Sweden, 304; Switzerland, 201. Exports, see Imports. Export trade, Canada, 418, 419.

FAUSTMANN, 134, 139. Feldjäger, 81. Felling time, Germany, 78. Femelschlag, Germany, 61. Fernandez, 408. Feudal system, France, 208, 210; Germany, 33; Japan, 447. Finland, 277. Fires, Canada, 418, 429; France, 221, 250; Germany, 48; India, 400, 401; Sweden, 303; Switzerland, 190; United States, 465, 494. Fischbach, 140. de Fleury, France, 233. Forest area, world, 4. Forest conditions, ancient, 9; Austria, 155ff; Canada, 414-417; Denmark, 314, 315; Finland, 279; France, 205, 206; Germany, 24, 47, 96, 109; Great Britain, 367; Greece, 328, 329; India, 383-388; Italy, 336; Japan, 444; Norway, 306, 307; Portugal, 360; Russia, 254-258; Spain, 352; Sweden, 287, 288; Switzerland, 188; Turkey, 322; United States, 461-466. Forest courts, France, 216; Germany, 32; Great Britain, 370, 371. Foresters, Forestarii, 32, 36. Forest influences, Austria, 163; France, 230; Germany, 129, 144; Italy, 342-347; Russia, 264; Switzerland, 191, 194. Forest management, ancient, 16. Forest ordinances, Austria, 158, 161; France, 212-216; Germany, 37, 38, 52. Forest organization, Austria, 169-172; France, 239, 240; Germany, 113- 120; Japan, 452; Russia, 274; Sweden, 303. Forest police, Austria, 164-166. Forest protection, by ancients, 16, 18; Germany, 141, 142. Forest rent, Germany, 118, 139. Forest schools, Austria, 175; Canada, 436; Denmark, 319; Finland, 283; France, 241, 242-244; Germany, 83, 84, 90, 145; Great Britain, 377, 378; Hungary, 183, 184; India, 405; Italy, 347, 348; Japan, 450, 451, 454; Norway, 310, 313; Portugal, 364; Russia, 270, 271; Spain, 355, 356; Sweden, 303, 304; Switzerland, 190, 200; United States, 487, 500, 501. Forest service, see Administration. Forest use control, early, Austria, 158; Denmark, 316; France, 213ff; Germany, 36ff, 49, 50, 55, 56; Hungary, 180; Norway, 308; Sweden, 294. Forestry congress, Canada, 429; United States, 480. Forestry council, Germany, 149. Forestry journals see Journals. Forestry, origin, 2, 41. Form factors, Germany, 134. Form quotient, Germany, 135. Frederick the Great, 72. French revolution, 126. Frontier forests, ancient, 13, 15. France, 222; Germany, 28; Hungary, 180. Fürst, 131, 132, 142.

GALICIA, 160. Gamble, 408. Gayer, 108, 131, 132. German influence, Denmark, 317, 332; France, 242; India, 380; Russia, 262; Sweden, 295; Switzerland, 191; United States, 480, 497. Germany, 22. Gibson, 393. Gifford, 500. Giessen, 146. v. Gleditsch, 84. Göchhausen, 86. Goeppert, 112. Graves, 503. Great Britain, 365. Grebe, 142. Greece, ancient, 10, 14, 16. modern, 327. Grenzmark, 13. Guiot, 237, 245. Guyot, 243, 246. Gwinner, 131, 140.

HARRISON, 483. Hartig, G. L., 83, 94, 98, 110, 113, 121, 130, 131, 132, 133, 136, 138, 139, 140, 145, 149, 170, 242, 245, 246. Hartig’s rules, 102, 104, 105. Hartig, R., 112, 141, 136. Hartig, Th., 132, 141. Hauch, 319. Haug, 112. Hausväter, 85. Hawaii, 505. Hennert, 72, 74, 75. Henry, 246. Hess, 102, 142. Heyer, E., 138. Heyer, G., 102, 117, 134, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 146, 150. Heyer, K., 101, 106, 111, 116, 130, 131, 134, 147. Heyer, K. method, 120. Historical periods, Germany, 25, 26. Hodges, 479. Holy groves, 13, 15, 16. Hossfeld, 112, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138. Hough, 475. Huber, 115, 134, 136, 137. Huffel, 239, 247. Hundeshagen, 100, 111, 116, 125, 130, 131, 135, 137, 140, 147, 171. Hungary, 154, 178. Hunting grounds of Romans, 13. Hygienic influences, Italy, 344, 347. Hypsometer, Germany, 75, 134.

IMPORTS, CANADA, 418; Denmark, 315; Finland, 277; France, 206; Germany, 24, 126; Italy, 338; Great Britain, 368; Norway, 308; Spain, 353; Sweden, 289; Russia, 253. Improvement fellings, France, 235; Germany, 110. Increment measuring, Germany, 75. Index per cent. Germany, 117. India, 14, 380. Indiana, 496, 497. Indo-China, 251. Information bureau, Germany, 128. Isaiah, reference, 10. Israelites, 10, 13. Istria, 160. Italy, 11, 335.

JACOBI, 70. Jacquot, 247. Jaeger, 112, 138. Jaeger, holzgerechte, Germany, 56, 81, 86. Japan, 442. Jews, 10, 13. Josephus, reference to forest destruction, 10. Journals, Austria, 178; Canada, 435, 436; Denmark, 319; Finland, 284; France, 247; Germany, 149, 150; Great Britain, 379; Hungary, 184; India, 408; Italy, 349; Norway, 314; Roumania, 326; Russia, 271; Spain, 360; Sweden, 304, 305; Switzerland, 202; United States, 480, 481, 499, 500, 503. Judeich, 117, 140, 170. Judeich and Nitzsche, 142. Jung, 90.

KAIGODOROV, 273. Kaiser, 132. Karl, 138. Karlsruhe, 146. Karst, 156, 161, 173, 174. Kauschinger, 142. Kentucky, 496. Klipstein, 114. Kogl, 172. König, 100, 111, 112, 116, 132, 135, 136, 138, 272. Korea, 455. Krafft, 112, 133, 140. Krain, 159. Kravchinsky, 273. Kregting, 73, 113. Krohne, 75. v. Kropf, 72, 74, 75. Kuntze, 136, 137, 138.

LANDES, reboisement, France, 226, 227. Landolt, 191, 202. v. Langen, 68, 70, 88, 309, 316. Lapham, 489. v. Lassberg, 88. Laurop, 142, 144, 148. Lefebvre, 249. Lehr, 140, 144. Leiria forest, Portugal, 363. Literature, ancient, 19; Austria, 178; Denmark, 319; France, 244-247; Germany, 22, 41, 67, 84-91, 130ff; Great Britain, 379; Hungary, 183; Italy, 349; India, 405; Russia, 271, 272; Sweden, 303; Switzerland, 202. Litter, 51, 133. Logslides, Germany, 79. Lorentz, 238, 242. Lorey, 112, 131, 136, 137. Louisiana, 496. Lumber industry, United States, 471; Canada, 419, 420.

MACEDONIA, 11, 322. Maine, United States, 494, 490. Malay States, 438. Manteuffel, 63, 107. Maria Theresa reforms, Austria, 161, 180. Mark forests Austria, 154; France, 207; Germany, 27ff, 37, 44, 46, 95; Norway, 307; Sweden, 290ff. Marsh G.P., 474. Maryland, 496. Massachusetts, 490, 496. Matsuno, 450, 453. Mauritius, 439. Mayer, 141. Mayr, 132. McClelland, 394. Mediterranean countries, 10, 12, 320. Meister, 202. Mensuration, Germany, 73, 78, 133ff. Mercantilistic system, Germany, 42, 53, 126. Mesopotamia, 10. Méthode à tire et aire, Germany, 58, 217; France, 236. Meurer, 85. Meyer, 144. Micheaux, 245, 478. Michigan, 490, 496, 497. Mine forests, Austria, 159; Hungary, 180. Minnesota, 489, 494, 496, 497. Moreau de Jonnès, 130. Morozov, 273. v. Moser, 89. Mound planting, Germany, 107. Mount Lebanon, 10, 14. Mühlhausen, 132. Müller P.E., 319. Müller, U., 138. Münden, 146. Munich, 84, 146. Municipal forests, 14.

NANCY, 242, 406. Nanquette, 242, 243, 246. Napoleon, 219. Natural regeneration, development in Germany, 39, 58ff. Navy reservations, Canada, 424; France, 215; Great Britain, 374; Russia, 262; United States, 469. Nestorov, 273. Newfoundland, 437. New Hampshire, 490, 496, 497. New Jersey, 490, 496, 497. New York, 490, 491-494, 498. New South Wales, 441. Ney, 131. Nisbet, 379. Noble, 483. Noerdlinger, 132, 138, 156. Normal forest, Austria, 170, 171; Germany, 115; Hungary, 181. North Carolina, 490, 497. Norway, 305. Nurseries, ancient, 20; Germany, 106, 107; Hungary, 182. Nursetree method, Germany, 60.