Part 20

Some notable exceptions to the general mismanagement of private forests are furnished by some of those owned by the nobility, like those of Count Uwaroff with 150,000 acres under model management by a German forester, and of Count Strogonoff with over 1,000,000 acres under first-class organization with a staff of over 230 persons.

A regular forest organization was first attempted in the forests attached to iron furnace properties in 1840. By this time some 100 million acres have come under regulated management, half of the area being government forests. The method of regulation employed is that of area division and sometimes area allotment according to Cotta. In some regions a division by rides into compartments, ranging from 60 to 4,000 acres each, according to intensity of exploitation, has been effected. It is estimated that at the present rate of progress it would take 300 years to complete the work of organization.

The selection method is still largely employed, a felling budget by number of trees and volume being determined in the incompletely organized areas; while a clearing system with artificial reforestation is used in most cases where a complete yield calculation has been made. The rotations employed are from 60 to 100 years for timber forest, 30 to 60 years for coppice.

In the pineries, the strip system in echelons is mostly in vogue, the strips being made 108 feet wide, leaving four seed trees per acre, and on the last strip, which is left standing for five years, this number is increased to eight which are left as overholders. This method, according to some, seems to secure satisfactory reproduction. To get rid of undesirable species, especially aspen and birch, these are girdled. In spruce forest, 50 to 60 per cent. of the trees are left in the fellings, when after three to four years the natural regeneration requires often repair, which is done if at all by bunch planting; after eight to ten years the balance of the old growth is removed.

While for a long time natural regeneration was alone relied upon, now, at least, artificial assistance is more and more frequently practiced. Yet, although over 2 million acres were under clearing system, not more than 5% of the revenue, or $100,000, was in 1898 allowed for planting as against 7.5% in Prussia; the total budget of expenses then remaining below 3 million dollars.

But, ten years later, over half a million dollars was employed by the government in planting, the planting fund contributed by the lumberman (see p. 269) furnishing the means.

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The forest administration of the province of Poland, where the State owns over 1.5 million acres was for some time independent, but, about 1875, was reorganized and placed under the central bureau at St. Petersburg. Although the forests of Poland are the most lucrative to the government and, with good market and high prices for wood, which are now rapidly increasing, would allow of intensive management, the stinginess of the administration, the low moral tone of the personnel, and long established bad practice have retarded the introduction of better methods. The private forests of Poland comprise over 4.5 million acres, and are mostly not much better treated than the State forest; in the absence of any restrictive policy they have diminished by 25% in the last 20 years.

Considerable efforts have been made towards reforesting the steppes in southern Russia, first as in our own prairies and plains by private endeavor, but lately with more and more direct assistance of the State forest administration.

This planting was begun by German colonists at the end of the 18th century, but without encouraging results, although over 25,000 acres had been planted by the middle of the 19th century. Since 1843, the government has had two experimental forest reserves in the steppes of the governments of Ekaterinoslav and Tauride, on which some 10,000 acres have been planted; the originator of this work being _von Graff_, a German forester, whose plantations, made with 8,000 plants to the acre, are still the best. Later, the number of plants was reduced to one-half, and the results have not been satisfactory. Altogether, planting on large areas on soils unfit for the purpose and by wrong methods has produced poor results. At present the policy is not to create large bodies of forest, but to plant small strips of 20 to 80 yards square in regular distribution, which are to serve as windbreaks, and the result has been satisfactory, especially in the government of Samara. There are now annually 2,000 acres added to these plantations.

The reclamation of shifting sands and sand dunes has also received considerable attention and, to some extent, the reboisement of mountain slopes in the Crimea and Caucasus. Of the former, some 10 million acres are in existence in European Russia, and in the province of Woronesh alone each year 100,000 acres are added. For 50 years sporadical work in their recovery was done. Not until 1891 and 1892, when two droughty famine years had led to an investigation of agricultural conditions, was a systematic attempt proposed, and this was begun in 1897. By 1902, some 80,000 acres had been fixed, and by 1904, 150,000 acres. In this work the government contributes 36% of the cost, the benefited communities the balance. In addition, 1,500 square miles of swamps in Western Russia were reclaimed by extensive canals and recovered with meadow and forest at a cost of $300,000, of which the Imperial Treasury paid one-third, the owners one-half, the local government the balance.

While rational forest management, as we have seen, is far from being generally established, the government tries at least to prevent waste and to pave the way from exploitation to regulated management.

FINLAND.

The Grand Duchy of Finland in the northeast of Russia is still in some respects independent of Russia.

Finland, the “land of a thousand lakes” and of most extensive forests, is hardly less important as a wood producer than Russia itself; its wood exports amounting at present to around 200 million cubic feet and over 25 million dollars in value, represent over 50 per cent. of its trade, and its most important resource.

Settled in the 7th century by an Aryan tribe, the Finns, congeners of the Magyars, who subdued the aboriginal Laplanders, Finland became by conquest in the 12th century, and remained for 500 years, a province of Sweden. In the wars between Sweden and Russia; parts of this province were conquered by Russia, and finally, in 1809, Sweden lost the whole; but the Finns succeeded in preserving national unity and partial independence under a constitution, adopted in 1772 and recognized by the Czar.

Finland stands very much in the same relation to Russia as does Hungary to Austria, the union being merely a personal one: the Czar is the ruler or Grand Duke, but the administration is otherwise largely separate from that of the empire, under a Governor-General, appointed by the Czar, and a Senate of 18 members at Helsingfors, with a national parliament of the four estates, nobles, clergy, burgers, peasants, which convenes every five years; the Czar having the veto power over its legislation. The War Department of Russia, however, is in charge of military affairs, and other departments seem to be under more or less supervision of the Russian administration. Lately repressive measures are threatening or have nearly accomplished the destruction of this autonomy.

Of the 145,000 square miles of territory, nearly 50% is occupied by lakes and bogs, marshes or tundra; less than 9 million acres (9.7%) is in farms, and 37.5 million acres or 42%, is forestland, actual or potential; The major part of this is located in the northern and eastern sections, where the population is scanty, agriculture little developed, and sand soils prevail. Beyond the 69th degree, forest growth ceases, and naturally near the forest limit the scrubby growth partakes of the character of all northern forests. Not more than 2.5 million acres, mostly in the southwestern sections, are actually under cultivation; the population being short of 2.5 million.

The rigorous climate makes a large consumption of fuelwood necessary, and, since houses are also mostly built of wood, the home consumption is over 32 cubic feet per capita. Over 10 million cubic feet of pine are consumed in making tar, and a like amount for paper pulp. The total cut is in the neighborhood of 370 million cubic feet, four-fifth of which comes from private forests of the middle and southern area, and over one-third of it is being exported.

The country generally is a tableland with occasional low hills. The forest consists principally of pine, the latter a variety of the Scotch Pine (or species?), called Riga Pine which excels in straightness of bole and thrifty growth, and of spruce (10 per cent. of the whole, mainly in the southeast). Aspen, alder and birch, especially the latter, are considered undesirable weeds, and fire is used to get rid of them where coniferous aftergrowth is desired, although birch is also employed for fuel, bobbins and furniture, and aspen for matches. Basswood, maple, elm, ash and some oak occur, and larch (_Larix sibirica_) was introduced some 150 years ago.

Long, severe winters and hot, dry summers produce slow growth, the pine in the north requiring 200 to 250 years, in the middle sections 140 to 160 years to grow to merchantable size.

Fires, used in clearing, have from time to time run over large areas and have nearly killed out the spruce except in the lowlands, but the pine being more resistant has increased its area and in spite of the deterioration of the soil by fire reproduces well.

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Originally the forest was communal property, but in 1524, Gustav Vasa declared all forest and water not specially occupied to belong to “God, King and the Swedish Crown,” although he allowed the usufruct to the people free of charge or nearly so. These rights of user are still the bane of the forest administration. Being left without supervision it mattered little who owned the land, the forest was ruthlessly exploited. Later, the rights of user thus originating were bought off by ceding lands to the peasants.

Not until 1851 did an improvement in these conditions occur when a provisional administration of the State forests was provided in connection with the Land Survey; but a rational organization materialized only after an eminent German forester, v. Berg, Director of the forest school of Tharandt, had been imported (1858) to effect a reconstruction. His advice was, however, only partially followed, and the organization was not perfected until 1869.

Almost immediately, a powerful opposition to the administration developed, because it could not at once show increased profits, and the personnel which had been scanty enough, was still further reduced, the large districts into which the State property had been divided were still further enlarged, and to this day, improvement in these respects has been only partial.

The State forest area, situated mainly in the north is stated as between 35 and 45 million acres (variable because of clearing for farms and new settlements), but it contains about 15 million acres of bogs and moors and much other waste land, which reduces the productive forest area to about 12 million acres (35%), leaving 65% of the productive forest area to private ownership.

This State forest was divided (1896) into 53 districts, the districts being aggregated into 8 inspections, and the whole service placed under a central office with a forest director and 5 assistants under immediate control of the Senate. The forest guards numbered 750, their ranges averaging 50,000 acres, while the districts average 600,000 acres and several contain as high as 2.5 million acres; the Forstmeister in charge may live sometimes 200 miles from the nearest town and 60 miles from the nearest road. His function is mainly to protect the property, to supervise the cutting and sales, and to teach the people the need of conservative methods. In spite of this insufficient service, considerable reduction in forest fires and theft has been attained.

Beyond restriction of waste by axe and fire, and conservative lumbering of the State forest, positive measures for reproduction have hardly yet been introduced, both personnel and wood values being insufficient for more intensive management.

At present, with a cut hardly exceeding 100 million cubic feet, the revenue is still almost nominal, say $600,000, and hardly the annual growth is cut.

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Selection forest is, of course, the rule, but since no trees are marked and cut less than 10 inch diameter at 25 feet from the ground (!), at least the possibility for improved management will not be destroyed when, through the exhaustion of the private forests and increased wood prices, more intensive management has become practicable.

When the market is good, a clearing system with 100 to 160 year rotation is practised; on the clearings about 20 seed trees are left, and after 6 years the natural regeneration is repaired by planting.

This latter method is especially prescribed on the government farms. These form an interesting part of the State property, some 900 small farms with woodlots aggregating over 500,000 acres, mostly in the southern districts. These came into existence in the 17th and 18th centuries, being granted as fiefs to officers of the army as their only compensation. They reverted to the State and are rented for terms of 50 years upon condition that the woods are to be managed according to rules laid down by the State department; and special inspectors are provided to supervise this work. This system, in vogue since 1863, at first met with opposition on the part of the renters on account of the impractical propositions of the department. At present the department manages many of these woodlots directly, as well as those which the clergy have received in lieu of emoluments.

Since 1883, a corps of forest surveyors has been occupied in making working plans based upon diameter accretion at the curiously selected height of 25 feet from the ground. A commission was also instituted some years ago to segregate forest and farm soils in the State domain with a view of disposing of the latter preparatory to improved management of the remaining forest area.

The State has also in a small way begun to purchase absolute forest soils in the southern provinces with a view to reforestation.

The private forest areas, located in the more settled southern portions are found mostly in small parcels and in peasants’ hands, although the nobility also owns some forest properties, but the size of single holdings rarely exceeds 1,000 acres. These areas are mostly exploited without regard to the future, furnishing still four-fifths of the large export, and according to competent judges will soon be exhausted.

Although attempts have been made from time to time to restrict the use of private forest, practically little has been accomplished, and such restrictions as have been enacted are hardly enforced.

A law, enacted in 1886, forbids clearing along waters adapted to fishing, and orders the leaving of seed trees or “providing otherwise for regeneration,” if more than 12 acres are cut at one time.

The method of utilizing the ground for combined forest and farm use, which is still frequently practised, was forbidden on the light sandy soils of the pineries, or was otherwise regulated. Forest fire laws are also on the statutes.

Propositions for further restrictions, made in 1891, were promptly rejected by the parliament.

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Educational opportunities are offered in the Forest Institute at Evois, first established in 1862 as a result of v. Berg’s visit, and re-organized in 1874. It accepts new students only every second year for the two years’ course. It has had a precarious existence, being left sometimes without students, and is naturally not of a high grade, practical acquaintance with woodswork being its main aim.

Since 1876, a school for forest guards and private underforesters has been in existence, where 6 students are annually accepted for a two years’ course.

In addition there are two instructors provided by the government, wandering teachers who are to advise private owners. Premiums are paid for the best managed woodlots on the government farms.

The Finnish forestry association, which is in part of propagandist nature, was organized in 1877. It supplies, besides an annual report, other forestry literature, and employs an experienced planter to direct efforts at reforestation.

A forestry journal (quarterly) is also published, and a professional literature is beginning to start into existence.

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It may be of interest in this connection to cite a rough calculation made by Dr. Mayr of the available material in European Russia and Finland combined, which he places at 4,500 million cubic feet, and of which he considers one-half available for export.

It is impossible to prognosticate what position Russia and Finland, together the largest wood producers in Europe, will take in the future world commerce, and how rapidly better practices, for which the machinery is already half started, will become generally adopted. At present, especially in Russia proper, the general corruption of the bureaucracy is an almost insurmountable obstacle to improvement.

THE SCANDINAVIAN STATES.

In the English language the _Report on Forestry in Sweden_, by Gen. C. C. ANDREWS, U. S. Minister at Stockholm, 1872, revised 1900, 35 pp., gives a statement of present conditions with historical notes.

A very good idea in detail of the wood trade of Sweden may be obtained from _The Wood Industries of Sweden_, published by TIMBER TRADES JOURNAL of London in 1896.

_La Suède, son Peuple et son industrie_, by G. SUNDBARG, 1900, 2 vols., contains several pertinent chapters. It is an official work, very complete, and was translated into English in 1904.

_The Economic History of the Swedish Forest_, by GUNNAR SCHOTTE, 1905. 32 pp., in Swedish, published by the forestry association, gives a brief account of conditions and data of the forestry movement.

_Norway._ Official publication for the Paris Exposition, 1900, contains a chapter on Forestry by K. A. Fauchald, pp. 322-350, with a map of forest distribution.

_Skogsvaesenets Historie_ ved Skogs direktoren, I Del, Historik, 1909, is an official publication of the Norwegian Forest administration, giving a full account of the development during the 50 years from 1857 to 1907, with notes of the earlier history.

_Le Danemarc. Etat Actuel de sa civilization et de son organization sociale_, by J. CARLSEN, H. OLRIC and C. N. STARCKE, 1900, 714 pp.

_Denmark, its history and topography, etc._, by H. WEITEMEYER, 1891.

_Bidrag til det Danske Skovbrugs Historie_, by O. LÜTKEN, 1900, was not accessible to the writer.

Extensive notes are found through the German, Austrian and French forestry journals. Especially an article in the Centralblatt für das gesammte Forstwesen, 1905 (briefed in Forestry Quarterly, vol. III, p. 292) and another (briefed in same Quarterly, vol. IX, p. 45) gives extended accounts of forest conditions in Sweden.

Under the name of Scandinavian States we may comprise the countries of Sweden, Norway and Denmark, which were settled by the same group of German tribes, the so-called Norsemen; they originally spoke the same language, which only later became more or less differentiated. The settlement of the country by these tribes seems to have been accomplished in the main by the end of the 8th century; and the separation into the three several kingdoms in the ninth to twelfth centuries, during which time they were sometimes united, or at least under one ruler, sometimes at war with each other, and always torn by interior dissensions bordering on anarchy.

In 1397, by the Calmar convention, a more permanent union into one kingdom was effected between Sweden, Norway, and Denmark under Margaret, “the Semiramis of the North.” After another period of variable fortunes, Sweden, about 1523, became an independent constitutional monarchy under Gustav Vasa, and Norway remained joined to Denmark under Frederick I.

Sweden then started on a career of conquest, being almost continuously at war with all her neighbors and especially with Russia and Poland, whereby, especially under Gustavus Adolphus and the adventurous Charles XII, her territory was greatly enlarged. With the treaties of Stockholm and Nystadt (1720 and 1721) she came into more peaceful waters, but permanent peace and a settled policy was not attained until the election of Bernadotte, one of Napoleon’s administrators, to the kingship, and by the peace of Kiel, in 1814, Sweden became a constitutional hereditary monarchy in the modern sense. At the same time, Norway was taken away from Denmark and forced to a union with Sweden, which persisted until 1907, when a peaceful separation took place by the action of the Norwegian people. The union has always been hateful to the Norwegians, although only the king and the department of foreign affairs (in which Norway was represented by a delegation from its Council) were in common, all other matters of administration being separate as well as the parliaments (Storthing in Norway, and Riksdag in Sweden).

Denmark, powerful in the 11th century under Canute, who subjugated not only Norway but England, losing both these countries shortly after his death, was shorn by Sweden of much of its territory in the 17th century, and, in 1814, was separated from Norway. Originally an elective monarchy, largely dominated by the nobility, the crown in 1661 became hereditary and absolute, and Sweden did not become a constitutional monarchy until 1849.

SWEDEN.

This country is of greatest interest to the world at large in forestry matters, because it has been until lately the largest exporter of wood and has only just fully waked up to its need for a conservative forest management: the law of 1903 promises to bring about very decided changes, and to curtail the exports upon which other European nations so much rely.

Sweden, with 172,876 square miles, occupies the eastern two-thirds of the Scandinavian peninsula. It is not like Norway, a mountain country, but the greater part consists of low granitic hills. The mountain range (Koelen) which forms the boundary towards Norway falls off in a long slope towards the gulf of Bothnia and the Baltic sea, the coast being a broad level plain, with a series of islands, larger or smaller, girdling the outer coast line and forming an archipelago.

The country is cut into numerous water sheds, the many rivers (called elfs), furnishing means of transportation, expanding frequently into lakes (sjö) in the upper reaches, and falling with cataracts into the lower plain, giving rise to fine water powers. Eight per cent. of the total area is in lakes. Only 12 per cent. of the land area is in farms. The forest area, with nearly 50 million acres, occupies nearly 48 per cent., leaving 40 per cent. waste land or otherwise occupied.

Half of the population of over 5 million pursues agriculture, while iron manufacture and the lumber industry occupy one-quarter.

Of the three main divisions of the country, the southern, Götaland, is richest in lowlands and agricultural soils, and, as it has also a favorable maritime climate, farming is the main industry. Here, a population of 50 to 60, and in parts up to 190 per square mile is found. Beech and oak are here the principal trees, with spruce occasionally intermixed.