CHAPTER XII

SKEPTICISM AND ECLECTICISM

=The Appearances of Philosophic Skepticism.= We have now traced the history of the positive and dogmatic aspect of the Hellenic-Roman Period through its Ethical Division and far into the Religious Division of the Period. The influence of the ethical movement did not disappear until at least two centuries after the beginning of this era, and the Schools themselves did not disappear until they were abolished by Justinian in 529 A. D. But the Ethical Period may be said to close at the beginning of this era, and even a century and a half before that――about 150 B. C.――its positive and dogmatic character had been lost. Eclecticism appeared in the Schools, and the last one hundred and fifty years of the Ethical Period was in character transitional and eclectic. This was caused by the growth and power of Skepticism, which we have already pointed out as the undercurrent of the entire period. Skepticism was the fundamental frame of mind of the eight hundred years of this time. It was the negative side of the period in contrast with the Schools. Philosophic Skepticism appeared contemporaneously with the rise of the New Schools at the very beginning of the Period, and the controversy between the Schools and Skepticism reached its height about 150 B. C. What was the result? Did philosophy turn, as in the Age of Pericles, back to greater triumphs in speculation? No; the world was no longer virile and no longer possessed the creative impulse. On account of the attacks of Skepticism upon the Schools, philosophy dissolved itself first into eclecticism, and then later by the introduction of new elements from the East was superseded by religion. In the philosophical sense, religion and eclecticism are both skeptical――both have doubts of the ability of the reason to reach truth. Eclecticism shows its Skepticism by doubting any one dogmatic scheme, and therefore it constructs a compromise of all; religion crowns faith in place of reason.

Philosophic Skepticism in these times did not appear except with reference to the doctrines of the Schools. It arose as merely polemical and antagonistic to the Schools’ teaching. While the Skepticism of antiquity busied itself with the problem of knowledge, it was superficial compared with modern Skepticism. Ancient Skepticism did not doubt that the object of knowledge existed; it did not doubt that the object of knowledge is external and even material. It assumed that things exist which, to the modern Skeptic, is the problem at issue.

We shall look now at the appearances of philosophic Skepticism, and the effect of this Skepticism upon the Schools in their turning to eclecticism.

=The Three Phases of Philosophic Skepticism.= These are three somewhat loosely connected appearances of Skepticism, and are determined in their character in large measure by the doctrines which they attacked.

=1. The First Phase of Philosophic Skepticism is called Pyrrhonism= (from about 300 to 230 B. C.). This was a Skepticism _directed against the assumptions of the philosophy of Aristotle_. From the dates above it will be seen to be contemporary with the founding of the Stoic and Epicurean Schools, at the very beginning of the period. The two representatives were Pyrrho (365–275 B. C.) of Elis and his pupil Timon (320–230 B. C.) of Phlius. When Zeno had begun to teach in the Painted Porch and Epicurus in the Gardens, when Theophrastus had succeeded his master in the Lyceum and Polemo led the Academy, the Skeptic Pyrrho began his personal instruction in the city of Elis. Pyrrho had but little influence. He left no writings, and his doctrine became known to the ancients through his pupil, Timon, who was the literary exponent of this Skepticism. The teaching may be stated in the three following sentences: (1) We can know nothing of the nature of things, but only of the states of feeling into which they put us; (2) The only correct attitude of mind is to withhold all judgment and restrain all action; (3) The result of this suspense of judgment is ataraxia or imperturbability. The Skeptic therefore sought the same internal peace for which Stoic and Epicurean were seeking, but he was skeptical of the Aristotelian metaphysics as an instrument to gain it. The opposite of any conclusion being equally plausible, suspense of judgment is the only peace of mind.

Pyrrhonism reminded the age after Aristotle that the problem of the certitude of knowledge is fundamental and must be settled before any philosophy can be constructed. The School was short lived, and people disposed to be skeptical joined the Academy.

=2. The Second Period of Philosophic Skepticism――The Skepticism of the Academy= (280–129 B. C.). The Middle Academy and its Skepticism was directed particularly against the Stoic teaching that an “apprehensive presentation” guaranteed its own truth by the conviction of immediate certainty. The two most distinguished representatives of this Skeptical period of the Academy were Arcesilaus (315–241 B. C.) and Carneades (214–129 B. C.). Carneades must be mentioned particularly as a genius and a philosopher of great personal influence. “He was the greatest philosopher of Greece in the four centuries from Chrysippus to Plotinus; indeed, in ability and depth of thought he surpassed Chrysippus.”[38] Carneades was the most formidable opponent of the Stoics. He had listened to the Stoic lecturers, had studied their writings, and had refuted them on their own grounds in brilliant lectures of his own.

The Skepticism of the Academy arose somewhat in this way. The rivalry of the Porch and the Older Academy had grown apace and had been a battle between two dogmatic Schools. The Academy was being worsted, its ancient spirit was waning, and it had gradually deserted speculation for ethics. Under Arcesilaus it was provoked to new life by the aggressive dogmatism of the Stoics. Speculation, which it had ignored, it now began to antagonize openly. Arcesilaus, in directing his attack against the doctrine of “apprehensive presentation” of the Stoics, came to conclusions but slightly different from Pyrrho. Carneades laid out for himself a twofold task: (1) to refute all existing dogmas, and (2) to evolve a theory of probability as the basis for practical activity. He applied his Skepticism not only to speculation, like Arcesilaus, but also to ethics and religion.[39]

The Academy did not fully adopt Skepticism, but used it as a weapon against the Stoics. The Platonic tradition was kept alive within the School, and Skepticism made no advance in the Academy after Carneades. It did not even continue in the path marked out by him. In the next generation the Academy became eclectic.

=3. The Third Period of Philosophic Skepticism――Sensationalistic Skepticism= (during two centuries or more of the Christian era). The chief representatives were Ænesidemus of Cnossus (first century A. D.), Agrippa (about 200 A. D.), and Sextus Empiricus (about 200 A. D.).

This phase of Skepticism was represented mainly by physicians, with arguments based upon empirical physiological grounds. When the Academy passed from Skepticism to eclecticism, Skepticism became centred in Alexandria. For two centuries before Galen (131–201 A. D.) great discoveries had been made in medicine, but the meaning of the discoveries had not been apprehended. There was a general feeling among physicians of that time that there is no such thing as scientific certainty; and skeptical arguments were constructed; based on the empirical discoveries of the scientific circle of Alexandria. While the arguments of the Academy were mostly formal attacks against the Stoics, this Skeptical School of physicians returned to Pyrrhonism, immensely reinforced with scientific material. It strove in vain to disassociate itself from the Academy, for it used in one way or another the formal arguments of the Skeptics of the Academy. In his eight books on Pyrrhonism, Ænesidemus developed the reasons which induced Pyrrho to call in question the possibility of knowledge. These are known in philosophy as the ten “tropes,” or ten ways of justifying doubt.[40] They were badly arranged by Ænesidemus and reduced to five by Agrippa.[41]

=The Last Century and a Half of the Ethical Period.= (150 B. C.–1 A. D.). =Eclecticism.=――About 150 B. C. the Ethical Period became eclectic. After 150 years of passionate controversy the Schools began to compromise their differences and fuse into one another. They no longer emphasized their differences, but began to point to their common ground of unity. This tendency to fusion applies only to the Lyceum, the Academy, and the Porch. The Epicurean School was never a party to this eclecticism and always remained relatively stationary. The fusion occurred only in the teaching of the Schools and not in their organization. Externally the Schools remained separate bodies for six hundred years longer. In the second century Hadrian and the Antonines endowed separate chairs for them in the University of Athens. They were not abolished as Schools until 529 A. D., by Justinian. Internally their independent growth lasted only during the two centuries down to the year 150 B. C. At this time their theoretic mission had been completed. Their internal history from 100 B. C. to 529 A. D. was one of compromise and adjustment. The year 150 B. C. is therefore important. At this time the records of the Schools stop, controversy abates, Stoicism and Epicureanism are introduced into Rome, and fusion of doctrines begins.

The Stoic School was the first to incline to eclecticism. Its own doctrine was a kind of fusion of incoherent parts, and among the Schools it could most easily welcome new doctrines. About 150 B. C., under the lead of Panætius and Posidonius, it adopted many of the Platonic and Aristotelian teachings, tempered its own ethical rigorism, and extended its scientific interests. At the same time the Peripatetics of the Lyceum united the pantheism of the Stoics to their own theism. After the death of Carneades in 129 B. C. the Academy turned from Skepticism back to the Platonic tradition, but it was a meagre Platonism adulterated with many foreign elements. For example, Antiochus of Ascalon taught Cicero from the Academy at Athens in the winter of 79–78 B. C. that Platonism and Aristotelianism were only different aspects of the same doctrine.

There were two factors that prepared an easy way for the rapid spread of eclecticism. One was the growing Skepticism that was so fundamental in Hellenism, and the other was the adoption of Hellenic culture by the Romans. Eclecticism is, after all, only another form of Skepticism. Both exhibit the spirit of undecided conviction. Neither has regard for the bonds of tradition, for both regard the individual superior to every tradition or system. Eclecticism, indeed, attempts to reconcile differing systems; but in doing this it casts a doubt upon the infallibility of them all only to a lesser degree than Skepticism. The spread of eclecticism was therefore only an extension from Greece of the skeptical spirit upon the world, and the Roman world gave a glad welcome to such a spirit. The Roman character was naturally eclectic. After his first aversion the Roman was hospitable to all philosophies and religions. In his practical way, undisturbed by philosophical hair-splittings, he selected from the different systems what was suited to his practical needs. Eclecticism found fertile ground in Roman civilization.

In the Schools after the year 150 B. C. there appear many notable names――notable not because they contributed to the theoretic advance of philosophy, but for some other reason. In the Stoic School were Panætius, Posidonius, and Boëthus; and later Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius. Among the Academicians are Philo of Larissa and Antiochus; among the Peripatetics of the same century is Andronicus; and among the eclectic Platonists Plutarch is especially to be named; these were all eclectics. The only one in this group of eclectics whom we shall have time for a passing examination of is Cicero.

M. Tullius Cicero (106–43 B. C.) listened to Greek philosophy in all the Schools in Athens and Rhodes. He read a good deal of Greek literature, so that he had much philosophical material at his command. He did not show much discretion in his selection of his material, but he displayed a good deal of tact in using what the Roman people would receive. The Greek mind spoke to the Roman through Cicero’s voice almost as though the Roman were speaking for himself. It must be admitted that Cicero’s acquaintance with Greek philosophy was on the whole superficial, yet he was able to express certain aspects of Greek philosophy with clearness for contemporary Latin readers and for many generations succeeding them. He prided himself in his ability to discuss both sides of a question without himself arriving at a decision――after the manner of the Middle Academy, of which he inscribed himself as a member. His books appeared in rather rapid succession.

Cicero does not therefore owe his prominence as a philosopher so much to his own profound independence of thought as to his skill in translating Greek thought to the Roman people. His metaphysics is an eclecticism that is at bottom a skepticism. In view of the existing philosophical warfare, he despaired of metaphysical or absolutely complete knowledge. Yet upon ethical and religious questions he spoke in no undecided manner, for in these realms he felt that we have more than merely probable evidence. Since he was unable to refute Skepticism in a scientific way, he took refuge in the immediate certainty of consciousness in all matters that pertain to morals and religion. There are certain ideas common to all men. These have not so much been taught to all men by nature as they are inborn in all. They are convictions implanted in us; there is a common human consciousness from which they are derived, and they are confirmed by universal opinion. Ethical and religious consciousness thus rests on immediate certainty. Man has the innate ideas of duty, immortality, and God. Our belief in God’s existence is supported by the teleological argument for Providence and divine government. The high dignity of man rests upon this innate conviction of freedom and immortality. Cicero shows his eclecticism by moderating the Stoic doctrine of virtue: virtue in itself is _vita beata_, but virtue plus happiness is _vita beatissima_. Unoriginal and eclectic as Cicero’s philosophical position may be, it is of great importance to the student of Roman history.