Chapter 1

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Transcriber's Note: [n,] represents a small eng. [N,] represents a capital eng. ['n] represents a small n with a superior acute. [oe] represents an oe ligature. ['] represents a prime.

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SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION--BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY.

ZUNI FETICHES.

BY

FRANK HAMILTON CUSHING.

CONTENTS.

Zuni philosophy 9 Worship of animals 11 Origin of Zuni Fetichism 12 The Zuni Iliad 12 The Drying of the World 13 Power of the Fetiches 15 Prey Gods of the Six Regions 16 Their origin 16 Po-shai-a[n,]-k'ia 16 Their power as mediators 18 Mi-tsi 18 Their worship 19 Prey Gods of the Hunt 20 Their relation to the others 20 Their origin 20 The distribution of the animals 21 Their varieties 24 The Mountain Lion--Hunter God of the North 25 The Coyote--Hunter God of the West 26 The Wild Cat--Hunter God of the South 27 The Wolf--Hunter God of the East 28 The Eagle--Hunter God of the Upper Regions 29 The Mole--Hunter God of the Lower Regions 30 The Ground Owl and the Falcon 30 Their relative values 30 Their custodian 31 The rites of their worship 32 The Day of the Council of the Fetiches 32 Ceremonials of the hunt 33 Their power 39 Prey Gods of the Priesthood of the Bow 40 The Knife-Feathered Monster, the Mountain Lion, and the Great White Bear 40 Their resemblance to the Prey Gods of the Hunt 41 The rites of their worship 41 Other Fetiches 44 Fetiches of Navajo origin 44 The pony 44 The sheep 44 Amulets and charms 44

ILLUSTRATIONS

Plate I.--Prey God fetiches 12 II.--Prey God fetiches of the Six Regions 16 III.--Prey God fetiches of the hunt 20 IV.--Mountain Lion fetiches of the chase 24 V.--Coyote fetiches of the chase 26 VI.--Wild Cat fetiches of the chase 27 VII.--Wolf fetiches of the chase 28 VIII.--Eagle fetiches of the chase 29 IX.--Mole and Ground Owl fetiches 30 X.--Shield and fetich of the Priesthood of the Bow 40 XI.--Shield and fetich of the Priesthood of the Bow 40

Fig 1.--Concretion 45 2.--Mineral fetich 45 3.--Fossil fetich 56

ZUNI FETICHES.

BY FRANK H. CUSHING.

ZUNI PHILOSOPHY.

The A-shi-wi, or Zunis, suppose the sun, moon, and stars, the sky, earth, and sea, in all their phenomena and elements; and all inanimate objects, as well as plants, animals, and men, to belong to one great system of all-conscious and interrelated life, in which the degrees of relationship seem to be determined largely, if not wholly, by the degrees of resemblance. In this system of life the starting point is man, the most finished, yet the lowest organism; at least, the lowest because most dependent and least mysterious. In just so far as an organism, actual or imaginary, resembles his, is it believed to be related to him and correspondingly mortal; in just so far as it is mysterious, is it considered removed from him, further advanced, powerful, and immortal. It thus happens that the animals, because alike mortal and endowed with similar physical functions and organs, are considered more nearly related to man than are the gods; more nearly related to the gods than is man, because more mysterious, and characterized by specific instincts and powers which man does not of himself possess. Again, the elements and phenomena of nature, because more mysterious, powerful and immortal, seem more closely related to the higher gods than are the animals; more closely related to the animals than are the higher gods, because their manifestations often resemble the operations of the former.

In consequence of this, and through the confusion of the subjective with the objective, any element or phenomenon in nature, which is believed to possess a personal existence, is endowed with a personality analogous to that of the animal whose operations most resemble its manifestation. For instance, lightning is often given the form of a serpent, with or without an arrow-pointed tongue, because its course through the sky is serpentine, its stroke instantaneous and destructive; yet it is named Wi-lo-lo-a-ne, a word derived not from the name of the serpent itself, but from that of its most obvious trait, its gliding, zigzag motion. For this reason, the serpent is supposed to be more nearly related to lightning than to man; more nearly related to man than is lightning, because mortal and less mysterious. As further illustrative of the interminable relationships which are established on resemblances fancied or actual, the flint arrow-point may be cited. Although fashioned by man, it is regarded as originally the gift or "flesh" of lightning, as made by the power of lightning, and rendered more effective by these connections with the dread element; pursuant of which idea, the zigzag or lightning marks are added to the shafts of arrows. A chapter might be written concerning this idea, which may possibly help to explain the Celtic, Scandinavian, and Japanese beliefs concerning "elf-shafts," and "thunder-stones," and "bolts."

In like manner, the supernatural beings of man's fancy--the "master existences"--are supposed to be more nearly related to the personalities with which the elements and phenomena of nature are endowed than to either animals or men; because, like those elements and phenomena, and unlike men and animals, they are connected with remote tradition in a manner identical with their supposed existence to-day, and therefore are considered immortal.

To the above descriptions of the supernatural beings of Zuni Theology should be added the statement that all of these beings are given the forms either of animals, of monsters compounded of man and beast, or of man. The animal gods comprise by far the largest class.

In the Zuni, no general name is equivalent to "the gods," unless it be the two expressions which relate only to the higher or creating and controlling beings--the "causes," Creators and Masters, "Pi-kwain=a-ha-i" (Surpassing Beings), and "A-tae-tchu" (All-fathers), the beings superior to all others in wonder and power, and the "Makers" as well as the "Finishers" of existence. These last are classed with the supernatural beings, personalities of nature, object beings, etc., under one term--

_a._ I-shothl-ti-mon=a-ha-i, from _i-shothl-ti-mo-na_=ever recurring, immortal, and _a-ha-i_=beings.

Likewise, the animals and animal gods, and sometimes even the supernatural beings, having animal or combined animal and human personalities, are designated by one term only--

_b._ K'ia-pin=a-ha-i, from _k'ia-pin-na_=raw, and _a-ha-i_=beings. Of these, however, three divisions are made:

(1.) K'ia-pin-a-ha-i=game animals, specifically applied to those animals furnishing flesh to man.

(2.) K'iae-shem-a-ha-i, from _k'iae-we_=water, _she-man_=wanting, and _a-ha-i_=beings, the water animals, specially applied not only to them, but also to all animals and animal gods supposed to be associated sacredly with water, and through which water is supplicated.

(3.) We-ma-a-ha-i, from _we-ma_=prey, and _a-ha-i_=beings, "Prey Beings," applied alike to the prey animals and their representatives among the gods. Finally we have the terms--

_c._ Ak-na=a-ha-i, from _ak-na_=done, cooked, or baked, ripe, and _a-ha-i_=beings, the "Done Beings," referring to mankind; and

_d_. Aesh-i-k'ia=a-ha-i, from _ae[']sh-k'ia_=made, finished, and _a-ha-i_=beings, "Finished Beings," including the dead of mankind.

That very little distinction is made between these orders of life, or that they are at least closely related, seems to be indicated by the absence from the entire language of any general term for _God_. True, there are many beings in Zuni Mythology godlike in attributes, anthropomorphic, monstrous, and elemental, which are known as the "Finishers or makers of the paths of life," while the most superior of all is called the "Holder of the paths (of our lives)," Ha[']-no-o-na wi-la-po-na. Not only these gods, but all supernatural beings, men, animals, plants, and many objects in nature, are regarded as personal existences, and are included in the one term _a-ha-i_, from _a_, the plural particle signifying "all," and _ha-i_, being or life,="Life," "the Beings." This again leads us to the important and interesting conclusion that all beings, whether deistic and supernatural, or animistic and mortal, are regarded as belonging to one system; and that they are likewise believed to be related by blood seems to be indicated by the fact that human beings are spoken of as the "children of men," while _all_ other beings are referred to as "the Fathers," the "All-fathers," and "Our Fathers."

THE WORSHIP OF ANIMALS.

It naturally follows from the Zuni's philosophy of life, that his worship, while directed to the more mysterious and remote powers of nature, or, as he regards them, existences, should relate more especially to the animals; that, in fact, the animals, as more nearly related to himself than are these existences, more nearly related to these existences than to himself, should be frequently made to serve as mediators between them and him. We find this to be the case. It follows likewise that in his inability to differentiate the objective from the subjective, he should establish relationships between natural objects which resemble animals and the animals themselves; that he should even ultimately imitate these animals for the sake of establishing such relationships, using such accidental resemblances as his _motives_, and thus developing a conventionality in all art connected with his worship. It follows that the special requirements of his life or of the life of his ancestors should influence him to select as his favored mediators or aids those animals which seemed best fitted, through peculiar characteristics and powers, to meet these requirements. This, too, we find to be the case, for, preeminently a man of war and the chase, like all savages, the Zuni has chosen above all other animals those which supply him with food and useful material, together with the animals which prey on them, giving preference to the latter. Hence, while the name of the former class is applied preferably as a _general_ term to all animals and animal gods, as previously explained, the name of the latter is used with equal preference as a term for all fetiches (We-ma-we), whether of the prey animals themselves or of other animals and beings. Of course it is equally natural, since they are connected with man both in the scale of being and in the power to supply his physical wants more nearly than are the higher gods, that the animals or animal gods should greatly outnumber and even give character to all others. We find that the Fetiches of the Zunis relate mostly to the animal gods, and principally to the prey gods.

ORIGIN OF ZUNI FETICHISM.

This fetichism seems to have arisen from the relationships heretofore alluded to, and to be founded on the myths which have been invented to account for those relationships. It is therefore not surprising that those fetiches most valued by the Zunis should be either natural concretions (Plate I, Fig. 6), or objects in which the evident original resemblance to animals has been only heightened by artificial means (Plate IV, Fig. 7; Plate V, Fig. 4; Plate VI, Figs. 3,6, 8; Plate VIII, Figs. 1, 3, 4, 5; Plate IX, Fig. 1).

Another highly prized class of fetiches are, on the contrary, those which are elaborately carved, but show evidence, in their polish and dark patina, of great antiquity. They are either such as have been found by the Zunis about pueblos formerly inhabited by their ancestors or are tribal possessions which have been handed down from generation to generation, until their makers, and even the fact that they were made by any member of the tribe, have been forgotten. It is supposed by the priests (A-shi-wa-ni) of Zuni that not only these, but all true fetiches, are either actual petrifactions of the animals they represent, or were such originally. Upon this supposition is founded the following tradition, taken, as are others to follow, from a remarkable mythologic epic, which I have entitled the Zuni Iliad.

THE ZUNI ILIAD.

Although oral, this epic is of great length, metrical, rythmical even in parts, and filled with archaic expressions nowhere to be found in the modern Zuni. It is to be regretted that the original diction cannot here be preserved. I have been unable, however, to record literally even portions of this piece of aboriginal literature, as it is jealously guarded by the priests, who are its keepers, and is publicly repeated by them only once in four years, and then only in the presence of the priests of the various orders. As a member of one of the latter, I was enabled to listen to one-fourth of it during the last recitation, which occurred in February, 1881. I therefore give mere abstracts, mostly furnished from memory, and greatly condensed, but pronounced correct, so far as they go, by one of the above-mentioned priests.

THE DRYING OF THE WORLD.

In the days when all was new, men lived in the four caverns of the lower regions (A-wi-ten te-huthl-na-kwin=the "Four Wombs of the World"). In the lowermost one of these men first came to know of their existence. It was dark, and as men increased they began to crowd one another and were very unhappy. Wise men came into existence among them, whose children supplicated them that they should obtain deliverance from such a condition of life.

It was then that the "Holder of the Paths of Life," the Sun-father, created from his own being two children, who fell to earth for the good of all beings (U-a-nam atch-pi-ah-k'oa). The Sun-father endowed these children with immortal youth, with power even as his own power, and created for them a bow (A-mi-to-lan-ne,=the Rain Bow) and an arrow (Wi-lo-lo-a-ne,=Lightning). For them he made also a shield like unto his own, of magic power, and a knife of flint, the great magic war knife (Sa-wa-ni-k'ia ae[']-tchi-e-ne). The shield (Pi-al-lan-ne) was a mere network of sacred cords (Pi-tsau-pi-wi,=cotton) on a hoop of wood, and to the center of this net-shield was attached the magic knife.

These children cut the face of the world with their magic knife, and were borne down upon their shield into the caverns in which all men dwelt. There, as the leaders of men, they lived with their children, mankind.

They listened to the supplications of the priests. They built a ladder to the roof of the first cave and widened with their flint knife and shield the aperture through which they had entered. Then they led men forth into the second cavern, which was larger and not quite so dark.

Ere long men multiplied and bemoaned their condition as before. Again they besought their priests, whose supplications were once more listened to by the divine children. As before, they led all mankind into the third world. Here it was still larger and like twilight, for the light of the Sun himself sifted down through the opening. To these poor creatures (children) of the dark the opening itself seemed a blazing sun.

But as time went on men multiplied even as they had before, and at last, as at first, bemoaned their condition. Again the two children listened to their supplications, and it was then that the children of men first saw the light of their father, the Sun.

The world had been covered with water. It was damp and unstable. Earthquakes disturbed its surface. Strange beings rose up through it, monsters and animals of prey. As upon an island in the middle of a great water, the children of men were led forth into the light of their father, the Sun. It blinded and heated them so that they cried to one another in anguish, and fell down, and covered their eyes with their bare hands and arms, for men were black then, like the caves they came from, and naked, save for a covering at the loins of rush, like yucca fiber, and sandals of the same, and their eyes, like the owl's, were unused to the daylight.

Eastward the two children began to lead them, toward the Home of the Sun-father.

Now, it happened that the two children, saw that the earth must be dried and hardened, for wherever the foot touched the soil water gathered--as may be seen even in the rocks to-day--and the monsters which rose forth from the deep devoured the children of men. Therefore they consulted together and sought the advice of their creator, the Sun-father. By his directions, they placed their magic shield upon the wet earth. They drew four lines a step apart upon the soft sands. Then the older brother said to the younger, "Wilt thou, or shall I, take the lead?"

"I will take the lead," said the younger.

"Stand thou upon the last line," said the older.

And when they had laid upon the magic shield the rainbow, and across it the arrows of lightning, toward all the quarters of the world, the younger brother took his station facing toward the right. The older brother took his station facing toward the left. When all was ready, both braced themselves to run. The older brother drew his arrow to the head, let fly, and struck the rainbow and the lightning arrows midway, where they crossed. Instantly, _thlu-tchu!_ shot the arrows of lightning in every direction, and fire rolled over the face of the earth, and the two gods followed the courses of their arrows of lightning.

Now that the surface of the earth was hardened, even the animals of prey, powerful and like the fathers (gods) themselves, would have devoured the children of men; and the Two thought it was not well that they should all be permitted to live, "for," said they, "alike will the children of men and the children of the animals of prey multiply themselves. The animals of prey are provided with talons and teeth; men are but poor, the finished beings of earth, therefore the weaker."

Whenever they came across the pathway of one of these animals, were he great mountain lion or but a mere mole, they struck him with the fire of lightning which they carried in their magic shield. _Thlu!_ and instantly he was shriveled and burnt into stone.

Then said they to the animals that they had thus changed to stone, "That ye may not be evil unto men, but that ye may be a great good unto them, have we changed you into rode everlasting. By the magic breath of prey, by the heart that shall endure forever within you, shall ye be made to serve instead of to devour mankind."

Thus was the surface of the earth hardened and scorched and many of all kinds of beings changed to stone. Thus, too, it happens that we find, here and there throughout the world, their forms, sometimes large like the beings themselves, sometimes shriveled and distorted. And we often see among the rocks the forms of many beings that live no longer, which shows us that all was different in the "days of the new."

Of these petrifactions, which are of course mere concretions or strangely eroded rock-forms, the Zunis say, "Whomsoever of us may be met with the light of such great good fortune may _see_ (discover, find) them and should treasure them for the sake of the sacred (magic) power which was given them in the days of the new. For the spirits of the We-ma-a-ha-i still live, and are pleased to receive from us the Sacred Plume (of the heart--Lae-sho-a-ni), and sacred necklace of treasure (Thla-thle-a); hence they turn their ears and the ears of their brothers in our direction that they may hearken to our prayers (sacred talks) and know our wants."

POWER OF THE FETICHES.

This tradition not only furnishes additional evidence relative to the preceding statements, but also, taken in connection with the following belief, shows quite clearly to the native wherein lies the power of his fetiches. It is supposed that the hearts of the great animals of prey are infused with a spirit or medicine of magic influence over the hearts of the animals they prey upon, or the game animals (K'ia-pin-a-ha-i); that their breaths (the "Breath of Life"--Ha-i-an-pi-nan-ne--and soul are synonymous in Zuni Mythology), derived from their hearts, and breathed upon their prey, whether near or far, never fail to overcome them, piercing their hearts and causing their limbs to stiffen, and the animals themselves to lose their strength. Moreover, the roar or cry of a beast of prey is accounted its Sa-wa-ni-k'ia, or magic medicine of destruction, which, heard by the game animals, is fatal to them, because it charms their senses, as does the breath their hearts. Since the mountain lion, for example, lives by the blood ("life fluid") and flesh of the game animals, and by these alone, he is endowed not only with the above powers, but with peculiar powers in the senses of sight and smell. Moreover, these powers, as derived from his heart, are preserved in his fetich, since his heart still lives, even though his person be changed to stone.

PREY GODS OF THE SIX REGIONS.

THEIR ORIGIN.

Therefore it happens that the use of these fetiches is chiefly connected with the chase. To this, however, there are some exceptions. One of these may be partly explained by the following myth concerning Po-shai-a[n,]-k'ia, the God (Father) of the Medicine societies or sacred esoteric orders, of which there are twelve in Zuni, and others among the different pueblo tribes. He is supposed to have appeared in human form, poorly clad, and therefore reviled by men; to have taught the ancestors of the Zuni, Taos, Oraibi, and Coconino Indians their agricultural and other arts, their systems of worship by means of plumed and painted prayer-sticks; to have organized their medicine societies; and then to have disappeared toward his home in Shi-pae-pu-li-ma (from _shi-pi-a_=mist, vapor; _u-lin_=surrounding; and _i-mo-na_=sitting place of--"The mist-enveloped city"), and to have vanished beneath the world, whence he is said to have departed for the home of the Sun. He is still the conscious auditor of the prayers of his children, the invisible ruler of the spiritual Shi-pae-pu-li-ma, and of the lesser gods of the medicine orders, the principal "Finisher of the Paths of our Lives." He is, so far as any identity can be established, the "Montezuma" of popular and usually erroneous Mexican tradition.

PO-SHAI-A[N,]-K'IA.