CHAPTER V.

THE SERPENT AND THE AQUATIC MONSTER.

SUMMARY.

The feet and the tail; the serpent is the favourite form of the demon; the devil is betrayed by his tail.--The serpent and the waters; the dragon as the keeper back of the waters, and as the guardian of the treasures; the devil evoked from the waters.--The otter.--The chief enterprise of Indras is the killing of the serpent.--The names of the Vedic serpent; _arbuda_ and _reptilis_.--Description of the Vedic serpent.--The wives of the demons and the wives of the gods; Indras wounds the wife of the demon in the _yonis_, and the demon himself in the eggs; the serpent's death consists in the broken egg; broken eggs, skins, vases, boxes, and testicles.--The god as a serpent; the python.--Gods and demons, birds and serpents dispute the possession of the ambrosia.--The phallical Anantas of cosmogony; the two _phalloi_.--Nâgalatâ; the game of the serpents, nâgas, nâgapadas, nâgapaças.--The caduceus.--Kaçyapas Pragâpatis, father of the birds and of the serpents.--Kumbhakarnas.--The hero dies as soon as he touches the serpent.--The funereal rope of Yamas is a serpent; the collar of Hêphaistos.--The serpents carry Sîtâ on their heads.--The city of Bhogavatî.--The hero becomes an aquatic monster in consequence of a curse.--The serpent released from the fire.--The wisdom of the serpent passes into the hero.--The three-headed serpent.--The serpent sacred in India and in Germany.--The stone of the serpent.--The serpent and the tree.--The tree and the phallos.--The cypress.--The tree, the maiden, and the serpent at the fountain.--The tree of the cross.--The serpent is wholly diabolical in Persian tradition.--The serpent is a mythical animal, both physically and morally amphibious.--The hero, the frog, and the serpent.--The grateful serpent.--Dialogue between two little serpents in a variety of the legend of Lear.--The serpent burnt.--Serpents and worms.--The serpent as the beautiful maiden's husband.--The heads of the serpent.--The serpent of the Black Sea.--The serpent-fairy gives eyes back to the blind woman.--The avenging serpent.--When the serpent is asleep.--The serpent in the garden of the Hesperides.--The serpent-wizard.--The serpent's kiss.--The serpent that whistles.--The wings of the serpent wet; the Vedic myth once more.

The mythical animal with which I conclude the study of traditional zoology is perhaps the most popular of the whole series. The omniform demon makes the god or hero who falls under his power assume the most diverse zoological forms, the power of transforming into which he holds in possession, of which he holds the secret; but he almost always reserves for himself as his most favourite and privileged form that of the serpent. The devil, says the popular proverb, is known by his tail; and to show that women know more than the devil, it adds that they also know where the devil secretes his tail, or where he keeps his poison, for his poison and power to harm are in his tail. A devil without a tail would not be a real devil; it is his tail which betrays him; and this tail is the serpent's tail.[523] In the forty-fifth story of the fifth book of _Afanassieff_, the devil-serpent comes every night to visit the young widow in the form of her deceased husband, eats with her and sleeps with her till morning; she grows thinner every night, like a candle before the fire; but her mother counsels her to let a spoon drop when she is sitting at table, that, in lifting it, she may scrutinise the guest's feet; instead of his feet, she only sees his tail. Then the widow goes to the church to be purified.[524] In the _Eddas_, too, the serpent Lokis, who has taken the form of a horse, betrays himself by his feet.

The serpent-devil appears in special connection with the infernal waters (darkness of night and of winter, and cloudy sky), which conceal treasures, the pearl, the solar hero or heroine with the waters of youth and life. The serpent-devil draws to himself every beautiful thing, now to swallow them, now to preserve and guard them like a miser. The dragon became the symbol of the keeper back of the waters, of the guardian of the treasures, who devours or attracts to himself everything that shines. In Du Cange, the name of _dracus_ is given to "species dæmonum qui circa Rhodanum fluvium in Provincia visuntur forma hominis, et in cavernis mansionem habent." In ancient Latin manuscript comments given by the same Du Cange, the devil is called by the name of _hydros_ or aquatic serpent. Hincmarus Remensis believes that the devil is evoked from the waters,[525] and according to St Augustine, it was from the waters and from the illusions created in the water by demons that Numa derived his inspirations.[526] Hence the custom, so frequent in German and Slavonic countries,[527] of blessing the water to chase the monsters away from it; hence, also, the custom which I have observed in several parts of Russia, where the children, before they bathe in the rivers, and as soon as they put their feet in the water, make profound inclinations and the sign of the cross; hence, according to Du Cange, the god of the waters, Neptunus, in the Middle Ages, becomes under the name of _Aquatiquus_, a personification of the devil;[528] hence, also, the otter (enüdris) assumes a diabolical character in the _Edda_, where the Ases take its skin off and fill it with the gold taken from the dwarf-pike Andvarri, and in the sixth story of the first book of _Afanassieff_, where it destroys the beasts of the menagerie of a Tzar, and finally drags the third son of the Tzar Ivan under an enormous white stone (the snowy winter) in the lower world, where there are palaces of gold and silver and three beautiful girls, sisters of the monster otter, who sleeps in the sea, and snores so that he pushes the waves to a distance of seven versts, until Ivan, after having drunk the water of strength, cuts the monster's head off at a blow, after which it falls into the sea.

But to proceed in the order which we have hitherto generally followed, let us examine before all the tradition of the aquatic monster, the dragon or serpent, in Hindoo mythology.

The most important of the heroic undertakings accomplished by the Vedic god Indras is, as already remarked, that of killing the monster; and the enterprise of Indras against the monster is the theme of all the great popular Indo-Persian, Græco-Latin, Turko-Slavonic, Franco-Germanic, and Franco-Celtic epic poems, as also of the greatest number of the popular stories which are the real epic material of the new epopees. Indras, Vishnus, Ahura-Mazda, Feridun, Apollo, Hêraklês, Kadmos, Jason, Odin, Sigurd, and several other gods and heroes, are celebrated for the undertaking of killing the serpent. Now, in the Vedic hymns the black monster (krishnas), the growing monster (râuhin),[529] the full-grown monster (piprus), the monster coverer (vritras), the monster that dries up (çushnas), the monster that keeps back (namucis), generally appears with the name and shape of a serpent, or if it has not always the form of a serpent, it is assimilated to it, and certainly inclines to become so from its office of a constrictor, its black colour, and other characteristics which it possesses in common with the serpent (Ahis).[530]

The monster killed by Indras, the monster with the horrid voice which Indras strikes upon the head with a thunderbolt, is, like the serpent, deprived of feet, deprived both of hands and shoulders.[531] But the serpent is also often explicitly named in the _Rigvedas_ as a monster which keeps back the waters, and which is killed by Indras. The serpent, the first-born of the serpents, was lying in the mountain;[532] he was lying under his mother,[533] he was keeping the waters, his wives, shut up, as a miser his treasure, or a robber the stolen cows;[534] a miser or rich robber[535] resembling a magician, he staid enclosed in a cavern, and kept the waters in it;[536] he lay down and perhaps slept;[537] he lay near the seven torrents;[538] Indras arouses him;[539] in another hymn, however, the serpent, making a loud noise, provokes Indras, and comes against him.[540] When Indras kills the serpent with the thunderbolt, or else crushes it under his foot, or burns it, he opens the torrent of the waters and causes it to flow out towards the sea; he makes the sun be born, and finds the cows;[541] he destroys the machinations of the sorcerer, generates the sun, the day, and the dawn, removes every enemy to a distance,[542] makes the serpent's trunk fall to the earth, like a tree cut down by axes, or torn up by the roots,[543] and (as in Russian stories the hero, after having cut the monster's head off, throws his trunk into the sea) over the killed monster, now fallen, the waters which make joyful pass;[544] the gods, who have given Indras three hundred oxen to eat (according to another hymn, only one hundred), and three lakes of ambrosia to drink, that he might be able to vanquish Ahis, are joyful at the victory gained by Indras over the serpent, with their wives and with the birds; not only this, but the women, the wives of the gods, compose on this occasion a hymn to Indras.[545]

We have already seen several times in the course of this work how, by killing his monstrous form, the hero or heroine enclosed in this is set at liberty; the waters, or rainy clouds, which are the monster wives of the demons, as long as the monster keeps them in the darkness, become the radiant wives of the gods when they are released; the same may be said of the aurora, kept in ward by the gloomy or watery monster of night, or of the spring detained in the dreary realm of winter; as long as they are in the power of the black demon, they are black and monstrous, and live with him in the infernal kingdom; when delivered from this kingdom, however, they become beautiful maidens, or princesses of dazzling splendour. When the monster fights with the god or solar hero of the thunderbolt, he arms his women too, and makes use of them as powerful helpers;[546] hence Indras also aims at them and lacerates the black-wombed witches,[547] being afterwards himself condemned to become Sahasrayonis. In popular Âryan tradition, however, it is often the daughter, wife, or sister of the monster that reveals to the hero the way of killing the monster. In Russian stories, one of the ways oftenest recommended to ensure the death of the monster, is to take the egg contained in the duck which is under the tree in the midst of the sea, and crush it upon the monster's forehead, who immediately dies; with the monster's death the two young lovers,--the daughter, wife, or sister of the monster, and the young hero,--marry each other. We have just seen that when Indras has killed the monster serpent, the waters pour out, and the sun appears. In another Vedic hymn we also find the interesting accompaniment of the egg, which reminds us, on the one hand, of the subject of Russian popular stories, and on the other of the belief described by us in the chapter on the Hen, to the effect that the thunderbolt breaks its eggs: Indras, with his strength, breaks the eggs of the monster that dries up the waters, and wins the luminous waters;[548] crushing the eggs, or wounding the testicles of the gloomy monster, he makes the sun come out of them, and thereupon the monster dies.[549] The symbolical representation of the solar year in the form of a serpent biting his tail is equivalent to the myth of the monster-serpent who dies when his eggs are broken, that is, when the light comes out of its tenebrous envelope.

Inasmuch, moreover, as from the monster serpent, the cloud and the darkness, come forth flashes of lightning, thunder-bolts, sunbeams, tongues of fire, even serpents sometimes assume a divine nature in the Vedic hymns. The Vedic god of fire, Agnis, the born of the waters (napâtam apâm), called Ahir-budhnyas, has already been compared to the Greek _püthôn ophis_, the python. Agnis is also compared to a serpent with a golden mane,[550] which reminds us of the horned monster that dries up, spoken of in another hymn as killed by Indras.[551] Indras himself is called he who has the strength of the serpent.[552] The Marutas have the serpent's anger;[553] and as the Marutas are resplendent with golden attire and ornaments, so the monsters appear adorned with gold and pearls.[554] In the _Âitareya Br._,[555] the serpent Arbudas has even become a rishis, a wise poet, as the python becomes the oracle of wisdom in Greece; and the serpents oppose a Vedas of their own (the Sarpavedas) to the Vedâs of the gods. In the same _Âitareya Br._,[556] we have the description of a struggle between the gods and a venomous serpent, whose greedy eye gazes at the somas, of which he desires to be possessed. The gods bandage his eyes; the serpent sings a verse in praise of the somas; the gods, as an antidote, sing several verses, and counteract the effect of the serpent's verse. And the witch (âsurî) of the long tongue (Dîrghagihvî) is no doubt a serpent, who in the _Âitareya Br._,[557] again, licks the morning libation of the gods, and makes it inebriating. In the _Râmâyanam_ it is recorded that the long-tongued witch (Dîrghagihvâ), the devourer, is killed by Indras. The struggle between the gods and the serpents for the possession of the ambrosia is the subject of a long episode of the first book of the _Mahâbhâratam_.[558] The serpent loves dampness, water, ambrosia, and rain. When Bhîmas, the son of the wind, is thrown into the waters of the Ganges, he falls into the kingdom of the serpents, who give him the water of strength to drink.[559] In the _Mahâbhâratam_, the mother of the serpents, who have been burned by the sun, invokes the rain to bring them to life again; Indras, to please her, veils the sky with clouds.[560] In the _Râmâyanam_, instead of the serpents, the monkeys are resuscitated by means of the rain. The rains of spring also waken the earth, which is in the _Âitareya Br._[561] called by the name of Sarparagnî, and was at first, like the serpents, bald, that is, devoid of vegetation; invoking the heavenly cow, it became covered with trees. In the Hindoo cosmogony, which we described in the chapter on the Tortoise, a very interesting account is given of the way the great stick or phallos, the generator of the world, is made to turn round. The serpent Anantas (the infinite) or Vasukis,[562] who makes the mountain revolve, is twined round it; the mountain and the serpent are synonymous;[563] they are two phalloi, which rub each other, and produce the seed (nâgalatâ or climbing serpent, serpent-creeper, is one of the Hindoo names of the phallos; in Piedmont it is said of a man in the venereal act, that he "climbs upon the woman;" and in Sanskrit nâgas, nâgapadas, nâgapaças, nâgapâçakas, denotes union in the manner of serpents, who apply their bodies to each other in their entire length,[564] in the same way as fire is produced by the friction of two pieces of wood--the aranî. Anantas, or Vâsukis, and Mandaras, or Kaçapas, and hence Kaçyapas, are identified with one another;) and this is all the more probable as Kaçyapas is also called by the name of Vasukas, and as Kaçyapas himself, in another cosmogonic legend of the _Mahâbhâratam_, appears as having made fruitful two wives, Kadrû, properly the dark one, and Vinatâ,[565] properly the concave, the curved or swollen one (two appellatives by which the _yonis_ appears to be equally represented), from one of which is produced the egg from which serpents are hatched, and especially the nâgâs serpents, with human faces, like the devils, and from the other, that which generates Arunas and Garudas (a form of the Açvinâu). Whilst, in the _Mahâbhâratam_, the serpent Vasukis rubs itself against the Mandaras and makes it turn round, it keeps blowing wind, smoke, and flames out of its mouth, which form clouds, with the water of which the creator gods are afterwards refreshed. Although this last particular shows the serpents intent upon the welfare of the gods, they hold in Hindoo tradition the same place as Anhromainyu, or Ahrimanes, in Persian; whilst one phallos gives birth to luminous phenomena and good beings, the other produces gloomy phenomena and wicked beings.

Among the productions of the phallical and serpentine genie of darkness are the clouds. In the _Râmâyanam_,[566] the monster Kumbhakarnas sleeps for sixth months; no number of drums, trumpets, nor any noise is able to awaken him; he is struck with hammers, but feels nothing; elephants pass over him, but he does not move: at last the tinkling of the golden ornaments of beautiful women suffice to rouse him. He rises; his arms resemble two great serpents, and his mouth the mouth of hell. He yawns, and that yawn alone sends forth a wind which resembles a rushing wind that shall usher in the end of the world. The aspect of Kumbhakarnas when he rises is like that of an immense cloud swelled out with rain towards the end of summer; he is horned like a mountain, and bellows like a thunder-cloud. No sooner is he born, than, inasmuch as by the curse of Brahman he can waken but one day in the year (that is in the autumn), he asks for food, and devours buffaloes, wild boars, men and women; he once swallowed even the ten nymphs, or Apsarasas (the clouds that blow over the waters), of the god Indras; he finds that the world is not provided with animals enough to satiate his hunger. When Kumbhakarnas moves to battle against the monkeys of Râmas, he draws his enemies to himself to devour them, he draws and receives the shock of whole mountains, but is not shaken. Râmas cuts one of his arms off, and the arm cut off (or the serpent, or the cloud cut off, like the stick of fairy tales which beats of itself) continues to massacre the monkeys. Râmas cuts Kumbhakarnas's other arm off, which supports with its hand the whole trunk of a robust shorea; but arm and trunk continue to slaughter the enemies on their own account.[567] At last Râmas shoots him in the mouth and heart; the monster falls, and crushes as he falls two thousand monkeys under his immense body. Here, therefore, we again see the monster and the serpent in relation with the clouds and waters. To touch the serpent, that is, the rainy season or the night, is for the solar hero or heroine the same as to die. In the _Mahâbhâratam_[568] the girl Pramadvarâ falls dead to the ground, having inadvertently pressed a serpent with her foot on the way; Rurus brings her to life again by renouncing half of his own life. In this legend the year or the day personifies life; summer sacrifices itself to winter, winter to summer, day to night, night to day, the sun to the moon, and the moon to the sun. In the beautiful legend of Savitrî, the wife sacrifices herself and offers herself to Yamas, the god of the dead, in order to be faithful to her husband. In the same _Mahâbhâratam_,[569] the King Parîkshit falls into the power of Takshakas, the king of the serpents, a form of Yamas the god of the dead (also called Anantas), because he had thrown a dead serpent on the shoulders of a Brâhman. In the _Râmâyanam_,[570] it is said that a man who has, when asleep, fallen into the hands of the god of the dead, Yamas, is bitten by a venomous serpent. The very rope with which Yamas the god of the dead binds men is a serpent. To the rope-serpent of Yamas we must refer the fatal collar with seven serpents and seven pearls (a symbol of the year, half luminous, half gloomy) which Hephaistos gave to Harmonia and Kadmos on the occasion of their wedding. Kadmos and Harmonia become serpents, and are taken into heaven by the gods. The daughters of Kadmos all come to an unhappy end. The collar is afterwards possessed by Erüphilê, for which reason evils befalls Amphiaraos, and subsequently also Alkmeôn. When Sîtâ,[571] in order to escape from the unjust suspicions of her husband and the perverse evil-speakings of the vulgar, wishes to disappear from the sight of men and to descend under ground, the serpents (pannagâs, who go not with feet) carry her upon their heads (as in Christian tradition the Virgin crushes the head of the serpent-seducer), and from the depths of the earth a voice is heard saying: "Difficult to be acquired is the sight of this woman, who resides in the three worlds; staying down here, she is honoured by the serpents (pûgyate nâgâih), and, in the world of the mortals, by mankind; nectar of the higher blessed ones, she is the satiator of the immortals." The kingdom of the nâgâs, or the city of Bhogavatî (an equivocal word, which means both furnished with serpents and furnished with riches), is full of treasures, like the hell of Western tradition. This infernal world went definitively under ground when the gods, having fallen, took humbler forms upon the earth and upon the waters of the earth; the lower world became the kingdom of the serpents and of the devils of the Vedic cloudy and gloomy heavens (devils and serpents, which Jewish tradition therefore represents with great justice as fallen angels). The riches of heaven, concealed by the cloudy or gloomy monster of night or winter, passed into the earth; the observation of heavenly phenomena helped this conception. The true mythical treasures are the sun and the moon in their splendour; when they go down they seem to hide themselves underground; the solar hero goes underground, he goes to hell, after having lost all his treasures and all his riches; he undertakes in poverty his infernal journey; when the sun rises from the mountain, it seems to come out from underground; the solar hero returns from his journey through hell, he returns resplendent and wealthy; the infernal demon gives back to him part of the treasures which he possesses, having carried them off from him, or else the young hero recovers them by his valour. But this hell was once the watery, wintry, nocturnal heaven itself, from which now the sun, now the moon emerges; the hero or the god was obscured or eclipsed, and assumed a gloomy form in the sky itself, and, as we have already said,[572] he who destroys, lacerates, or kills this form, does a service to the poor and cursed wandering Jew who wears it. We are reminded of the aquatic monster, in the _Râmâyanam_,[573] by the gandharvas[574] Tumburus, who assumed, under a curse, the form of the monster Virâdhas who carries Sîtâ off from Râmas, with the sole design that Râmas may kill him and deliver him from the malediction, so that he may be able to reascend in happiness to heaven. In a similar manner, Hanumant delivers from her curse the ogress of the lake, the seizer (grâhî) and devourer, who was once a nymph.[575] The body of the old rishis Çarabhañgas also gives us the idea of a serpent's body. Çarabhañgas desires to deliver himself from it, as a serpent casts off its old skin. He then enters the fire; the fire burns him; Çarabhañgas, arising from the conflagration, comes forth young, splendid, and as brilliant as fire.[576] In the celebrated episode of Nalas in the _Mahâbhâratam_,[577] the serpent Karkotakas, surrounded by the flames, asks Nalas, on the other hand, to deliver him from the flames; the serpent makes himself small in order that Nalas may be able to carry him away; Nalas does so, and the serpent bites him; he then loses his shape, which passes into that of the serpent. In this new diabolical form Nalas becomes invulnerable and invisible. The diverse action taken by fire in legends can be comprehended by reference to the solar hero, now in the morning, now in the evening, now in spring, now in autumn: in the morning and in the spring the serpent of night enters the flames and becomes a handsome youth again; in the evening and in the autumn the serpent comes out of the flames of the evening aurora, or of the summer, and becomes the moon, after having made the sun disappear, or rendered it invisible or invulnerable. In the forty-seventh story of the sixth book _Afanassieff_, a hunter (the hunting solar hero) is about to heat the stove; a serpent is lying in it, and promises, if he will draw it out of the fire, to render him happy, and teach him the language of all animals. He tells the hunter to put the end of his stick into the fire, by which means it will be enabled to make its escape; the hunter complies, but is warned that he will die himself should he reveal that secret to any one.

The serpent, therefore, is not only monstrous and maleficent in Hindoo tradition, but also at once the learned one, and he who imparts learning; it sacrifices itself to let the hero carry away the water of life, the water of strength, the health-giving herb or the treasure; it not only often spares, but it favours the predestined hero; it destroys individuals, but preserves the species; it devours nations, but preserves the regenerative kings; it poisons plants, and throws men into deep sleep, but it gives new strength in its occult domain to the sun, who gives new life to the world every morning and every spring. In the Vedic heavens the serpent is a magician expert in every kind of magic; in the kingdom of the serpents the young lost hero recovers his splendour, wisdom, and victorious power. Hence the worship in India of the serpent, who is revered as a symbol of every species of learning. We have, on a previous occasion, found the horned or crested serpent who personifies, in the _Rigvedas_, fire or the god Agnis, and by this we must understand the crest or mane of the sun, which comes out of the darkness; thus the god Haris or Vishnus lies upon a crested serpent or a many-headed serpent. Three-headed serpents or dragons, such as are famous in fairy tales, occur in the _Harivanças_,[578] and correspond to the Vedic monster Triçiras, that is, three-headed. The crest of the serpent is the god Vishnus himself, as a solar deity who comes out of the serpent's body. Hence the hooded-serpent, called Nalla Pâmba in the Malabar,[579] is especially revered in India. "The sudden appearance of one of these serpents," wrote Lazzaro Papi from India, "is considered to presage some future good or evil. It is the divinity himself in this form, or at least his messenger, and the bringer of rewards or chastisement. Although it is exceedingly venomous, it is neither killed, molested, nor crushed in the house which it enters, but respected, and even caressed and adored by the more superstitious. They give it milk to drink, and the accommodation to which it is accustomed; they construct little huts for it, and prepare receptacles and nests for it under large trees. This reminds me of the ancient inhabitants of Prussia, who nourished several serpents with milk in honour of Patriumpho or Patrimpos, their deity. The family in which one of these serpents takes up its abode esteems itself fortunate and secure from poverty and other misfortunes; and if some one, as it not seldom happens, is bitten by them and dies, the victim of his own credulity, it is, they say, a punishment of God that has overtaken him for some crime." It is nearly the same belief as that which we found in the preceding chapter concerning the toad and the amphisbhæna. In Hungary, as Count Geza Kunn informs me, some fairies are said to be born with a serpent's skin, and to resume their form after this serpent's skin has been shed. It is said that a precious stone can be found under a serpent's tongue. When the serpents warm themselves in the sun of spring, they blow out the stone (or the sun itself), and subsequently conceal it under the tongue of a still larger serpent, the king of the serpents.

The serpent is supposed to protect and preserve the lost riches, and to guard the soul of the dead hero; hence serpents, like crows amongst birds, are revered in India as embodied souls of the dead. In Germany,[580] the white serpent (that is, the snowy winter), according to the popular legend, gives to whoever eats of it (or who is licked by it in the ears) the gift of understanding the language of birds, and of universal knowledge (it is in the night of Christmas, that is, in the midst of the snow, that those who are predestined to see marvels can comprehend, in the stables, the language of the cattle, and, in the woods, the language of the birds; according to the legend, Charles le Gros, in the night of Christmas, saw heaven and hell open, and was able to recognise his forefathers). Thus in Greece, Melampos, Cassandra, and Tiresias became seers by their contact with the serpent, symbolised at a later period in the python and the pythoness, as the depositaries of all the oracles of wisdom. In Scandinavian mythology, Odin also assumes the form of a serpent (ormr), and the name of Ofnir, in the same way as Zeus becomes a serpent in Greek mythology when he wishes to create Zagreus, the bull-headed, another Zeus or another Dionüsos. In Rochholtz and Simrock, we find indications of the same worship as that given to the serpent in India, where it is regarded as a good domestic genie. Milk is given to certain domestic little snakes to drink; they are put to watch over little children in their cradles, with whom they divide their food; they bring good luck to the children near which they stay; it is therefore considered a fatal sacrilege to kill them. It is fabled, moreover, that a serpent is sometimes born with a child entwined round its neck, and that it and the child are thenceforth inseparable (an image of the year and of the day, half luminous and half tenebrous, inseparable the one from the other). It guards the cattle in the stables, and procures for good and beautiful maidens husbands worthy of them. According to a popular legend, two serpents are found in every house (a male and a female), which only appear when they announce the death of the master and mistress of the house; when these die, the snakes also cease to live. To kill one of these serpents is to kill the head of the family. Under this aspect, as a protector of children, as a giver of husbands to girls, and identified with the head or progenitor of the family, the serpent is again a phallical form. From the gloomy serpent of night, the tenebrous serpent of winter, even the nocturnal and wintry heavens illumined by the moon, and from the white moon, emerges the diurnal sun, the sun of spring, the day and the warm and luminous season. The ogre, dragon, or serpent keeps back the waters in the cloud and the waters in the rivers, occupies the fountains, lies at the roots of the tree which yields honey, of the ambrosial tree, of the tree in the midst of the lake of milk; the tree and the phallos are again identified. The Phrygian Attis, loved by Cybele, is deprived of his phallos, and expires; Cybele transforms him into a pine tree (which is cone-bearing and evergreen, which resists, like the moon, even the rigours of winter), in which the funereal and regeneratory phallos is personified; the cypress (cone-bearing and evergreen), which the three brothers of the fairy tales must watch during the night, and which only the youngest brother succeeds in delivering from the dragon or serpent which carries it away, is also represented in Persian tradition as in the middle of a lake of ambrosia. The serpent steals this tree, as in the Hindoo myth it steals the ambrosia from the gods; it knows well that in it consists the regeneratory strength of the hero, whom the serpent has bitten; sometimes it steals the tree from him, and sometimes guards over it. Out of the golden apple, or out of the orange of the tree guarded by the dragon, in popular tales, the beautiful maiden comes; the dragon keeps her back a second time on the way, making her mount upon a tree, or throwing her into the fountain, near which the beautiful maiden becomes a dark fish or a dark bird (a swallow or a dove), in order to come out again from the fish or the bird in the form of a beautiful girl. The love of the young princess for the young hero, in Russian stories, comes out of the duck's egg taken under the tree, and the death of the serpent-dragon is caused by it. Here the gloomy monster of the night and winter, the monster serpent, appears, in guardianship of the moon, the protectress of marriages, as an ambrosial and evergreen tree, and, like the cypress, a funereal tree, which is at the same time symbolical of immortality. From the moon of winter and of night, the solar hero of spring and the day, the maiden spring and the maiden aurora come forth. The serpent, like the toad, the frog, the fish, and the bird, now desires the moon of winter and of night for itself, and now presents it to the young hero, whom it protects. The moon appears when the diurnal sun goes down in the west; hence the garden of the Hesperides, as the word denotes, was supposed to be situated in the west; the moon rules the northern heavenly region, the cold season of the year; for this reason Apollodorus placed this same garden of the Hesperides in the north, amongst the Hyperboreans, where the tree of oblivion also grew according to Ælianos. In India, the ambrosial tree, the tree of immortality, the tree of Brahman's paradise, like the moon and Çivas (the god of paradise and of hell, the phallical and destroying god), was also placed in the north, on Mount Merus, the phallical and primeval mountain, near the sea of oblivion, guarded by a dragon; but because the dragon or serpent represents evil oftener than good, because Çivas, the moon, and the cypress, have a double aspect, phallical and funereal, paradisiacal and infernal, because Kaçyapas, the great primitive phallos, created opposite things in the form of a bird and in that of a serpent, two trees are also represented upon Mount Merus, one of good and one of evil, one of life and one of death, which reminds us of the Jewish and Mahometan traditions. The legends concerning the tree of the golden apples or figs, which yields honey or ambrosia, guarded by dragons, in which the life, the fortune, the glory, the strength, and the riches of the hero have their beginning, are numerous among every people of Âryan origin; in India and in Persia, in Russia and in Poland, in Sweden and in Germany, in Greece and in Italy, popular myths, poems, songs, and fairy tales amplify with a great variety of incidents, partly unconscious of their primitive signification, this strange subject of phallical cosmogony.[581]

The Persian cosmogony is of a less material character than the Hindoo, but its principle is the same. Ahuramazda and Anhromainyu, who occupy the first place as the creators of the world, are also two males in opposition to one another. From Ahuramazda descends Thrætaona or Feridun, the killer of the serpent (azhi) Dahâka, or Dahak, or Zohak, the three-headed dragon which Anhromainyu created to destroy the beautiful in the world, as the strongest of monsters.[582] In Hindoo tradition we find the bird Garudas on the side of the gods, and the Nâgas or serpent on that of the demons; so, in Persian tradition, the bird Simurg is on the side of the gods, and the serpent or sea-monster on that of the demons. It is in the midst of the waters that the hero Kereçâçpa finds the great serpent Çruvara, who devours men and horses, and who ejects a venom as large as a man's thumb. Taking him probably for an island,[583] he has food cooked upon it; the serpent feels the heat, and begins to move; it then throws Kereçâçpa, the courageous Kereçâçpa, over backwards. There seems to be some analogy between this myth of the Yaçna of the _Avesta_ and the story of the fearless hero of the Russian story, who, being asleep in a boat, falls into the river when terrified by the little fish which had jumped upon him. (The serpent appears also as the enemy of fire in the _Khorda-Avesta_.)[584] The serpent causes the diseases which Thrætaona is requested to cure; it poisons whatever it sees and touches; and, according to the _Khorda-Avesta_,[585] the wicked are condemned to feed upon poison after death. In the _Shah-Name_ the sun disappears, devoured by a sea-monster or crocodile. In the third adventure of Isfendiar, the hero is almost inebriated by the venomous smoke and the pestilential breath of the dragon which he has victoriously combated; and, after having won, he falls to the ground as if dead; thus Indras, after having defeated the monstrous serpent, flees in terror over the rivers, like a madman attacked by hydrophobia, terrified by the shadow, the smoke, or the water of the dead serpent, because this shadow, which is perhaps his own, and not his enemy's, menaces to submerge him in those poisoned waves, and to transform him into a sea-monster, assimilating him thus to his enemy; inasmuch as the god sends to make man like himself, so also does the demon. In Persia, therefore, the serpent is generally considered as a demoniacal and monstrous animal, the personification of evil. If it is prayed to, it is to conjure it away, to induce it to go far distant, as the Arabs and the Tatars particularly do to expel the devil. The Persian genius has not the mobility, the plasticity, and elasticity of the Hindoo; its mythical images are more severe and less multiform; hence the serpent remained in Persian tradition the demoniacal animal _par excellence_. In the _Tuti-Name_, on the contrary, which is of Hindoo origin, the serpent has a double aspect. The serpent wishes to eat the frog. (In the fifteenth story of the third book of the _Pancatantram_, the frogs ride upon the serpent, and leap upon it in delight, like Phædrus's frogs upon King Log, which was sent to them in derision by Jove; the serpent and the rod are assimilated.) The hero saves the frog, upon which the serpent reproves him, because he thus takes its food from it; the hero then cuts off some of his own flesh to give it to the serpent;[586] the serpent protects the hero ever afterwards, and cures with an ointment the king's daughter, who had been bitten by another serpent; the king gives his daughter, on her recovery, to the hero who had satisfied the serpent's hunger. In the tenth story of the third book of the _Pancatantram_, two little serpents, who talk to each other, both work their own ruin and make the fortune of the hero and of the heroine. A king's son has a serpent in his body without knowing it, and becomes ill; he abandons in despair his father's palace, and goes begging; he is given, in contempt, the second daughter of another king to wife, who had never said amiable things to her father, like her eldest sister (a variation of the legend of Cordelia and Lear); whilst one day the young prince has fallen asleep with his head upon an ant-hill, the little serpent which is in his body puts out its head to breathe a little fresh air, and sees another serpent coming out of the ant-hill;[587] the two little serpents begin to dispute and call each other names; one accuses the other of tormenting the young prince by inhabiting his body, and the accused responds by charging it with hiding two jars full of gold under the ant-hill.[588] Continuing their quarrel, one says how easy it would be to kill the other; a little mustard would suffice to settle the first, and a little hot oil the second (the serpent is killed by being burned; the rich uhlan-serpent of the Russian story is burned in the trunk of an oak-tree, in which it had taken refuge out of fear for the fire and the lightning); the hidden wife listens to everything, delivers her husband from the little serpent in his body, and kills the other serpent to take out the treasure which it keeps hidden.[589] In the fourteenth of the stories of Santo Stefano di Calcinaia, the third of the young daughters, in order to save her father from certain death, consents to marry the serpent, who carries her upon his tail to his palace, where he becomes a handsome man called Sor Fiorante, of the red and white stockings. But she must reveal the secret to no one. The maiden (as in the fable of Cupid and Psyche) does not resist the temptation of speaking of it to her sisters, on which her husband disappears; she finds him again after having filled seven flasks with her tears; breaking first a walnut, then a hazel-nut, and finally an almond, of which each contains a magnificent robe, she recovers her husband, and is recognised by him.[590] In a variety of the same story in my little collection, a good serpent fairy advises the blind princess, and gives her the hazel-nut, the almond, and the walnut; each of the three gifts contains a marvel; by means of the first marvel the young princess regains one eye from the false wife; by means of the second marvel, the other eye, which the serpent puts in its place;[591] and by means of the third, which is a golden hen with forty-four golden chickens (perhaps forty-four stands for forty times four, or a hundred and sixty, which might represent the luminous and warm days of the year, from the first of April to the end of August), she finds her lost husband again. In an unpublished Sicilian story communicated to me by Dr Ferraro, a serpent presses the neck of King Moharta to avenge a beautiful girl whom the king had forsaken, after having violated her; in order to release himself from the serpent, the king is compelled to marry the beautiful girl whom he had betrayed. In the sixteenth of the Tuscan stories published by me, the three sons of the king go to get the water which jumps and dances, and which is guarded by a dragon who devours as many as approach it; the dragon sleeps from twelve to two o'clock, and sleeps with its eyes open, which signifies, if we interpret twelve o'clock as twelve o'clock of the day, that the dragon is asleep when the sun watches, and if, on the contrary, as twelve o'clock at night, that it sleeps when the moon, compared to the hare which sleeps with its eyes open, shines in the sky.[592] In an ancient Neapolitan vase explained by Gerhard and Panofka, we find a tree and a fountain, a serpent (the same as that which gnaws at the roots of the tree Yggdrasill in the _Eddas_), three Hesperides, and Hêraklês. One Hesperis is giving the wounded serpent some beverage in a cup, the second is plucking an apple, the third is about to pluck one, and Hêraklês has also an apple in his hand. The myth and the story of the ogre and the three oranges correspond perfectly to one another.[593] The maiden was at first identified with the serpent, as the daughter of the dragon, and as a female serpent; she lays aside her disguise on the approach of the young hero, and recovers all her splendour. In an unpublished story of the Monferrato, communicated to me by Dr Ferraro, a beautiful girl, when plucking up a cabbage (a lunar image), sees under its roots a large room, goes down into it, and finds a serpent there, who promises to make her fortune if she will kiss him and sleep with him; the girl consents. After three months, the serpent begins to assume the legs of a man, then a man's body, and finally the face of a handsome youth, the son of a king, and marries his young deliverer. In popular tradition, we also have the contrary form of the same myth, that is, the beautiful maiden who becomes a serpent again. In a German legend,[594] the young hero hopes to deliver the beautiful maiden by three kisses:[595] the first time he kisses her as a beautiful girl; the second time as a monster, half woman half serpent; the third time he refuses to kiss her, because she has become entirely a serpent.

When the day or the summer dies, the mythical serpent shows himself (in absolute contradiction to what we are taught by Natural History, one would almost say that when the serpent ceases to creep along the ground and to devour the animals of the earth, it goes to creep and to devour the animals of the sky); then the north winds begin to whistle,--and the serpent, particularly the mythical serpent, is a famous whistler. Isidorus[596] even identifies the basilisk and the serpent, called a _regulus_ with the whistle itself: "Sibilus idem est qui et Regulus: sibilo enim occidit antequam mordeat vel exurat." In the twenty-fifth story of the fifth book of _Afanassieff_, the gipsy and the serpent challenge one another to see who will whistle loudest. When the serpent whistles or hisses (that is, in autumn) all the trees lose their leaves. The gipsy defeats the serpent by a cheat; he makes it believe that it will be unable to resist the effects of his whistle if it does not cover its head, and then beats it without pity, so that the serpent is convinced of the gipsy's superiority, and says that it reveres him as its elder brother.[597] I cited in the first chapter of the first book the Russian story of Alexin the son of the priest, or the divine Alexin, who fights against Tugarin, the son of the serpent, or the demon-serpent, and begs the Virgin to bathe the monster's wings with the rain of the black cloud: the monster's wings being heavy with water, force it to fall to the ground. Here we return again to the simple yet grandiose Vedic myth, the most remote of all, from which we started; we return to lyrical poetry, inspired, spontaneous, ingenuous, full of agreeable or fearful surprises, of naïve enthusiasms, of creative impulses, the unconscious originator of a new civilisation and a new faith, as yet undefiled with phallical cosmogonies, as yet unruptured and unimpoverished by the sterile dreams of eunuch-like metaphysics.

FOOTNOTES:

[523] St Augustine, _Hom._ 36, says of the devil: "Leo et draco est; Leo propter impetum, Draco propter insidias;" in Albania, the devil is called _dreikj_, and in Romania, _dracu_.

[524] A proverb of the _Râmâyanam_ says, that "only a female serpent can distinguish the feet of a male serpent" (v. 38): Ahireva hyaheh pâdâu vigâniyânna samçayah). The feet of the serpent, like those of the devil, which is the tail (or the phallos of the male) can be perceived by a female alone; women know where the devil has his tail.

[525] Tom. i., "Sunt qui in aquæ inspectione umbras dæmonum evocant, et imagiones vel ludificationes ibi videre et ab iis aliqua audire se perhibent."

[526] In the seventh book _De Civitate Dei_, the saint writes: "Ipse Numas ad quem nullus Dei propheta, nullus Sanctus Angelus mittebatur, Hydromantiam facere compulsus est, ut in aqua videret imagines deorum vel potius ludificationes dæmonum, a quibus audiret, quid in sacris constituere atque observare deberet quod genus divinationis idem Varro a Persis dicit allatum."

[527] It also exists in Roumania, where the new solar year is celebrated by the benediction of the waters, as if to exorcise the demons that inhabit them.

[528] _Codex Reg._, 5600 ann. circ. 800, fol. 101, in Du Cange: "Sunt aliqui rustici homines, qui credunt aliquas mulieres, quod vulgum dicitur strias, esse debeant, et ad infantes vel pecora nocere possint, vel dusiolus, vel Aquatiquus, vel geniscus esse debeat." Neptunus, vel aliquis genius, quia quis præest designari videtur.

[529] The monsters which mount into heaven by magical deceits, killed by Indras, are said to creep like serpents: Mâyâbhir utsisripsata indra dyâm; _Rigv._ viii. 14, 14.

[530] The name of _Arbudas_, given to the monster which Indras, the ram (meshas), crushes (for _ni-kram_ seems to me to have this meaning) under his foot while it is lying, is nothing else than a serpent; moreover, he, whose people is the _sarpâs_ or serpents, is the king of the serpents. To _arbud-as_ I would refer the Latin words _rep-ere_, _rept-are_, _reptil-is_.

[531] Apâd ahasto apritanyad indram âsya vagram adhi sânâu gaghana; _Rigv._ i. 32, 7.--Yo vyansam gahrishânena manyunâ yah çambaram yo ahan piprum avratam; i. 101, 2.--Apâdam atram mahatâ vadhena ni duryona âvrinañ mridhravâcam; v. 32, 8.

[532] Ahann ahim parvate çiçriyânam; i. 32, 2.--Ahann enam prathamagâm ahînâm; i. 32, 3.

[533] Nîcâvayâ abhavad vritraputrendro asyâ ava vadhar gabhâra--uttarâ sûr adharah putra âsîd dânuh çaye sahavatsâ na dhenuh; i. 32, 9. Properly speaking, the verse speaks here of Vritras, and not of Ahis; but the coverer and the constrictor being equivalent, it seems to me that there are not here two beings distinguished, in the same hymn, by two analogous appellations.

[534] Dâsapatnîr ahigopâ atishthan niruddhâ âpah panineva gâvah; i. 32, 11.--The reader will remember the discussion concerning the proverb of shutting the stable after the oxen are stolen, in the first chapter of the first book.

[535] Avâdaho diva â dasyum uccâ; i. 33, 7.

[536] Guhâhitam guhyam gûlham apsu apîvritam mâyinam kshiyantam uto apo dyâm tastabhvânsam ahann ahim çura vîryena; ii. 11, 5.

[537] Âçayânam ahim vagrena maghavan vi vriçcah; iv. 17, 7.

[538] Sapta prati pravata âçayânam ahim vagrena vi rînâ aparvan; iv. 19, 3.

[539] Sasantam vagrenâbodhayo 'him; i. 103, 7.

[540] Navantam ahim sam pinag rigîshin; vi. 17, 10.

[541] Sa mâhina indro arno apâm prâirayad ahihâchâ samudram aganayat sûryam vidad gâh; ii. 19, 3.--Srigah sindhûnr ahinâ gagrasânân; _Rigv._ iv. 17, 1.--Ahann ahim anv apas tatarda pra vakshanâ abhinat parvatânâm; i. 32, 2.

[542] Yad indrâhan prathamagâm ahînâm ân mâyinâm aminâh prota mâyâh--ât sûryam ganayan dyâm ushâsam tâdîtnâ çatrum na kilâ vivitse; i. 32, 4.

[543] Ahan vritram vritrataram vyansam indro vagrena mahatâ vadhena skandhansîva kuliçenâ vivriknâhih çayata upaprik prithivyâh; i. 32, 5.--Ud vriha rakshah sahamûlam indra vriçca madhyam praty agram çrinîhi; iii. 30, 17.

[544] Çayânam mano ruhânâ ati yanty âpah; i. 32, 8.

[545] Anu tvâ patnîr hrishitam vayaç ca viçve devâso amadann anu tvâ; i. 103, 7.--Asmâ id u gnâç cid devapatnîr indrâyârkam ahihatya ûvuh; i. 61, 8.

[546] Striyo hi dâsa âyudhâni cakre; _Rigv._ v. 30, 9.

[547] Sa vritrahendrah krishnayonîh puramdaro dâsîr âirayad vi; ii. 20, 7.--Vritras the killer of Piprus, Indras _puram-daras_, properly, who wounds the full one, who cleaves the full or the swollen one, and hence who wounds, the city, and Indras the lacerator of the witches with the black wombs are equivalent; cfr. what was said concerning the thunderbolt as a phallos, in the first chapter of the first book, where the cuckoo is spoken of, and in the chapter on the Cuckoo in the second book.--In the hymn, i. 32, 9, Indras also wounds underneath the mother of the monster: Indro asyâ ava vadhar gabhâra.

[548] Uto nu cid ya ogasâ çushnasyândâni bhedati geshat svarvatîr apah; _Rigv._ viii. 40, 10.--In the hymn i. 54, 10, it is said that the cloud-mountain is found amongst the intestines of the coverer; one might say that the serpent binds the cloud in the form of bowels. The reader will recollect what we observed concerning the intestines, the heart, and the liver, of the sacrificed victim in the first chapter of the first book.

[549] In the twentieth story of the fifth book of _Afanassieff_ we find a singular variety, which is of some importance in the history of mythology and language. A princess asks the serpent, her husband, by what his death can be caused. The serpent answers that his death can be brought about by the hero Nikita Kaszemiaka, who, in fact, comes up and kills the serpent by submerging him in the sea. Nikita is called, it is said, Kaszemiaka, because his occupation was that of tearing skins. The torn skins (cfr. here also the _Jupiter Aegiocus_) take here the place of the duck's egg broken upon the serpent, and of the eggs of the monster broken by Indras. In Italian, _coccio_, means a piece of a broken vase, and also, in botany, the skin of a seed; _incocciarsi_ signifies to be angry. In Piedmont, it is said of one who annoys people, that he breaks the boxes, and, more vulgarly, that he breaks the testicles.

[550] Hiranyakeço 'hih; _Rigv._ i. 79, 1.

[551] Vi çriñginam abhinac chushnam indrah; i. 33, 12.

[552] Ahiçushmasattvâ; v. 33, 5.

[553] Ahimanyavah; i. 64, 9.

[554] Cakrânâsah parînaham prithivyâ hiranyena maninâ çumbhamânâh; i. 33, 8.

[555] vi. 1, 1.

[556] The passage cited before.

[557] i. 3, 22.--In Russian stories, we frequently find the incident of a serpent, or witch, who endeavours to file, or pierce through, with her tongue the iron doors which enclose the forge in which the pursued hero has taken refuge; he, from within, helped by divine blacksmiths, draws the witch's tongue in with red-hot pincers and causes her death; he then opens the gates of the forge, which represents now the red sky of evening, now the red sky of morning.

[558] i. 792, _et seq._--Cfr. also the second Esthonian tale, where the young hero, in the kingdom of the serpents, drinks milk in the cup of the king of the serpents himself.

[559] _Mbh._ i. 5008, _et seq._

[560] i. 1283-1295.

[561] v. 4, 23.

[562] Cfr. _Râmâyanam_, i. 46, and _Mahâbhâratam_, i. 1053, 1150.--In the _Râmâyanam_ (vi. 26), the arrows of the monsters are said to bind like serpents; the bird Garudas appears and the serpents untie themselves, the fetters are loosed; Râmas and Lakshmanas, supposed to be dead, rise again stronger than before.

[563] As we have seen that _mandaras_ is equivalent to _mantharas_, a name of the tortoise which, according to the cosmogonic legend, sustains the weight of the mountain, or enormous stick which produces the mountain, so Anantas, in another Hindoo legend (cfr. _Mbh._ i. 1587-1588) sustains the weight of the world.--The rod of pearls which when placed in fat enables the young prince to obtain whatever he wishes for, seems to have the same originally phallical meaning as the mandaras; it is the king of the serpents who presents it to the young prince. The fat may, in the mythical sky, be the milk of the morning dawn, or the rain of the cloud, or the snee, or the dew; as soon as the thunderbolt touches the fat of the clouds, or of the snee, or as soon as the sunbeam touches the milk of the dawn, the sun, riches, and fortune come forth.

[564] The _coitus_ is also called a game of serpents in the _Tuti-Name_. Preller and Kuhn have already proved the phallical signification of the caduceus (_tripetêlon_) of Hermês, represented now with two wings, now with two serpents. The phallical serpent is the cause of the fall of the first man.

[565] _Vinatâ_ is also the name of a disease of women; and, as far as we can judge from the passage of the _Mahâbhâratam_ (iii. 14,480), which refers to it, it is the malignant genius who destroys the foetus in the womb of the pregnant mother. He is defined as _çakunigrâhî_, properly the seizer of the bird. Kaçyapas, the universal phallos, the Pragâpatis, certainly unites himself to Vinatâ in the form of a phallos-bird, as to Kadrû in that of a phallos-serpent.

[566] vi. 37-38, 46.

[567] Cfr. for this subject the first and second chapters of the first book.

[568] i. 949, 974.

[569] i. 1671, 1980, _et seq._

[570] iv. 16.

[571] _Râmây._ vii. 104, 105.

[572] Cfr. concerning this subject in particular, the first chapter of the first book, the chapter on the Wolf and that on the Frog.

[573] iii. 8.

[574] Cfr. the discussion concerning the gandharvâs in the chapter on the Ass.

[575] _Râmây._ vi. 82.--This nymph becomes grâhî, because she had once struck a holy Brâhman with her chariot. The same reason is assigned for the malediction which falls upon King Nahushas, who became an enormous serpent; this serpent squeezed the hero Bhîmas in its mortal coils; his brother, Yudhishthiras, runs up, and answers in a highly satisfactory manner to the abstruse philosophical questions addressed to him by the serpent, which then releases Bhîmas, casts off its skin, and ascends in the form of Nahushas to heaven; _Mbh._ iii. 12, 356, _et seq._

[576] _Râmây._ iii. 8.

[577] iii. 2609, _et seq._

[578] Triçîrshâ iva nâgapotâs; 12, 744.

[579] Cfr. Papi, _Lettere sulle Indie Orientali_, Lucca, 1829; it is the _cobra de capello_ of the Portuguese.

[580] Cfr. Simrock _Deutsche Mythologie_, pp. 478, 513, 514, and Rochholtz _Deutscher Glaube und Brauch_, i. 146.

[581] Cfr. again the legend of Adam and Eve, of the tree and the serpent, and the original sin. In the mediæval comedy _La Sibila del Oriente_, Adam when dying says to his son, "Mira en cima de mi sepulcro, que un arbol nace." In Russian stories the young hero will be fortunate, now because he watched at his father's tomb, now because he defended the paternal cypress from the demon who wished to carry it off. In the legend of the wood of the cross, according to a sermon of Hermann von Fristlar (cfr. Mussafia, _Sulla Leggenda del legno della Croce_), the tree upon the wood of which, made into a cross, Christ died, is said to have been a cypress. The same mediæval legend describes the terrestrial paradise whence Adam was expelled, and where Seth repairs to obtain for Adam the oil of pity. The tree rises up to heaven, and its root goes down to hell, where Seth sees the soul of his brother Abel. On the summit there is a child, the Son of God, the promised oil. The angel gives to Seth three grains which he is to put into Adam's mouth; three sprouts spring up which remain an arm's-length in height till the time of Moses, who converts them into miraculous rods, and replants them before his death; David finds them again, and performs miracles with them. The three sprouts become one plant which grows proudly into a tree. Solomon wishes to build the temple with this wood; the workmen cannot make use of it; he then has it carried into the temple; a sybil tries to sit upon it, and her clothes take fire; she cries out, "Jesus, God and my Lord," and prophesies that the Son of God will be hanged upon that wood. She is condemned to death, and the wood thrown into a fish-pond, which acquires thaumaturgic virtue; the wood comes out and they wish to make a bridge of it; the Queen of the East, Saba, refuses to pass over it, having a presentiment that Jesus will die upon that wood. Abia has the wood buried, and a fish-pond appears over it.--Now, this is what an author, unsuspected of heresy, writes concerning the symbol of the serpent (Martigny, _Dictionnaire des Antiquités Chrétiennes_): "Les ophites, suivant en cela les nicolaites et les premiers gnostiques, rendirent au serpent lui-même un culte direct d'adoration, et les manichéens le mirent aussi à la place de Jésus Christ (S. Augustin. _De Hoeres._ cap. xvii. et xlvi.) Et nous devons regarder comme extrêmement probable que les talismans et les amulettes avec la figure du serpent qui sont arrivés jusqu' à nous, proviennent des hérétiques de la race de Basilide, et non pas des païens, comme on le suppose communément." To the continuers of the admirable studies of Strauss and Renan will be reserved the office of seeking the sense hidden in this myth, made poetical by the evangelical morals. When we shall be able to bring into Semitic studies the same liberty of scientific criticism which is conceded to Âryan studies, we shall have a Semitic mythology; for the present, faith, a natural sense of repugnance to abandon the beloved superstitions of our credulous childhood, and more than all, a less honourable sentiment of terror for the opinion of the world, have restrained men of study from examining Jewish history and tradition with entire impartiality and severity of judgment. We do not wish to appear Voltairians, and we prefer to shut our eyes not to see, and our ears not to hear what history, studied critically and positively, presents to us less agreeable to our pride as men, and to our vanity as Christians.

[582] Cfr. _Yaçna_, ix. 25-27; cfr. also Prof. Spiegel's introduction to the _Khorda Avesta_, pp. 59, 60.

[583] Cfr. the chapter concerning the Fishes and that on the Tortoise.

[584] Cfr. Prof. Spiegel's introduction to the _Khorda-Avesta_, p. 60.

[585] xxxviii. 36.

[586] A variety of the Hindoo legend of the hawk (Indras), of the dove (Agnis), and of King Çivis, who, to save the dove from the hawk, his guest, gives some of his own flesh to the hawk to eat. Here the serpent is identified with the hawk or eagle; in the Mongol story, however, the dragon is grateful to the man who delivered him from the bird Garudas; the king of the dragons keeps guard over the white pearls, arrives upon a white horse, dressed in white (probably the snow of winter, or the moon); the king of the dragons rewards the hero by giving him a red bitch, some fat, and a string of pearls.--In the sixth story of the _Pancatantram_, we have the serpent and the crow, one at the foot of a tree, the other on the summit; the serpent eats the crow's eggs, and the crow avenges itself by stealing a golden necklace from the queen and throwing it into the snake's hole; the men go to seek the necklace, find the serpent and kill it.

[587] We have seen in the chapter on the Ant how the ants make serpents come out of their holes; in Bavaria, according to Baron Reinsberg von Düringsfeld, the work quoted before, p. 259, an asp (_natter_) taken in August must be shut well up in a vase in order that it may die of heat and of hunger; then it is placed upon an ants' nest, that the ants may eat all its flesh; of what remains, a sort of paternoster is made, which is supposed to be very useful against all kinds of eruptions upon the head.

[588] Cfr. the interminable riches of the uhlan-serpent in the story vi. 11, of _Afanassieff_.

[589] Here we have a serpent which expels and ruins another. In a similar manner, before the times of San Carlo Borromeo, a bronze serpent, which had been carried from Constantinople by the Archbishop Arnolfo in the year 1001, was revered in the basilica of St Ambrose at Milan; some said that it was the serpent of Æsculapius, others that of Moses, others that it was an image of Christ; for us it is enough to remark here that it was a mythical serpent, before which Milanese mothers brought their children when they suffered from worms, in order to relieve them, as we learn from the depositions of the visit of San Carlo to this basilica: "Est quædam superstitio de ibi mulierum pro infantibus morbo verminum laborantibus." San Carlo put down this superstition.

[590] These marvels are always three, as the apples are three, the beautiful girls three, the enchanted palaces in the kingdom of the serpents which they inhabit three (cfr. _Afanassieff_, i. 5). The heads of the dragon are in this story and generally three, but sometimes also five, six (cfr. _Afanassieff_, v. 28), seven (cfr. _Pentamerone_, i. 7, and _Afanassieff_, ii. 27; the serpent of the seven heads emits foul exhalations), nine (iii. 2, v. 24), or twelve (cfr. _Afanassieff_, ii. 30).--In the twenty-first story of the second book of _Afanassieff_, first the serpent with three heads appears, then that with six, then that with nine heads which throw out water and threaten to inundate the kingdom. Ivan Tzarevic exterminates them. In the twenty-second story of the same book the serpent of the Black Sea, with wings of fire, flies into the Tzar's garden and carries off the three daughters; the first is obtained and shut up by the five-headed serpent, the second by the seven-headed one, and the third by the serpent with twelve heads; the young hero Frolka Sidien kills the three serpents and liberates the three daughters.

[591] Cfr. also, for the legend of the blind woman, the first chapter of the first book.

[592] When the mythical serpent refers to the year, the hours correspond to the months, and the months during which the mythical serpent sleeps seem to be those of summer, in contradiction to what is observed in nature.

[593] In the fifth story of the second book of the _Pentamerone_, a serpent has itself adopted, as their son, by a man and woman who have no children, and then asks for the king's daughter to wife; the king, who thinks to turn the serpent into ridicule, answers that he will consent when the serpent has made all the fruit-trees of the royal garden become golden, the soil of the same garden turn into precious stones, and his whole palace into a pile of gold. The serpent sows kernels of fruits and egg-shells in the garden; from the first, the required trees spring up; from the second, the pavement of precious stones; he then anoints the palace with a certain herb, and it turns to gold. The serpent comes to take his wife in a golden chariot, drawn by four golden elephants, lays aside his serpent's disguise, and becomes a handsome youth.

[594] Cfr. Mone, _Anzeig._ iii. 88.

[595] Cfr. on this subject the stories recorded in the first and second chapters of the first book.

[596] _Origines_, xiv. 4.

[597] Cfr. the same, _Afanassieff_, vi. 10, where the cunning workman, in reward for having vanquished the little devil in whistling, and for having made it believe that he could throw a stick upon the clouds, obtains the money which can remain in a hat which never fills.

CONCLUSION.

"E come quei che con lena affannata Uscito fuor del pelago a la riva Si volge all 'onda perigliosa e guata, Cosi l'animo mio che ancor fuggiva Si volse indietro a rimirar ..."

and the shadows of the mythological monsters rise again before me, and occupy my fearful thoughts. During these months of my solitary sojourn on Olympus, have I only been the victim of a horrible nightmare, or have I apprehended aright the reality of the changeful figures of the sky in their animal forms? The ancient mythology, which used to be taught to us at school, was filled with the incests of Jove, of Mars, and of Venus; but they were classical myths, and the adulterers were called gods; and our good fathers, in the vain search for symbolical meanings, tortured their ingenious brains to extract from each scandal of Olympus a moral lesson for the instruction of youth. Hence it was permitted to art to represent Jove as a bull, an eagle, a swan, a seducer in an animal form, without offending decency or violating the sanctity of the schools; and the young scholars were encouraged to write their rhetorical exercises in Italian or Latin verse upon the favourite themes of classical mythology, inasmuch as with symbols and moral allegories the vile matter could all be made divine. Platonic or metaphysical love not requiring the vehicles of sense to communicate itself, the animal forms of the god were for our old masters nothing else than symbols and allegories, conceived and intended to veil an elevated educational wisdom. But we have rocked ourselves long enough in the cradle of this infantile fantasy, and must now discard from this and kindred themes all such idle dreams. It is at last necessary to summon up the courage to front the problems of history with the same frankness and ardour with which naturalists approach the mysteries of Nature, and pierce the veil; nor is this attempt so hazardous, since, in order to demonstrate entirely our historical theses, we have certain and positive data provided for us in speech and in legend by comparative oral and written tradition. We do not invent; we simply accumulate, and then put in order the facts relating to the common history of popular thought and sentiment in our privileged race. The difficulty consists only in classifying the facts; the facts themselves are many and evident. It is very possible to be deceived in their arrangement, and hence also in their minute interpretation; and I am, for my part, not without apprehension that I may have here and there made an unlucky venture in interpreting some particular myths; but if this may, in some degree, reflect discredit on my intelligence, which is perhaps imperfectly armed, and without sufficient penetration, this can in nowise prejudice the fundamental truths which permit comparative mythology to constitute and install itself as a positive science, that may henceforth, like every science, instruct and edify with profit. The principal error into which the students of the new science are apt to fall, and into which I may myself have sometimes been betrayed in the course of this work, is that of confining their observations to one special favourite mythical point or moment, and referring almost every myth to it, and not taking sufficient account of their mobility and their separate history, that is, of the various periods of their manifestation. One sees in the myth only the sun, another only the moon in its several revolutions, and their amours with the verdant and resplendent earth; one sees the darkness of night in opposition to the light of day, another the same light in opposition to the gloomy cloud; one the loves of the sun with the moon, another those of the sun with the aurora. These diverse, special, and too exclusive points of view, from which the myths have hitherto been generally studied by learned men, have afforded ill-disposed adversaries an opportunity of ridiculing the science of Comparative Mythology as a science which is little serious, and which changes its nature according to the student who occupies himself with it. But this opposition is disarmed by its own weapons. For what does the concord of all learned men and scholars in this department prove? It proves, in my opinion, but one thing, and that is, the reproduction and confirmation of the same natural myths under multiplex forms, the representation by analogous myths of analogous phenomena, and that the variations met with in fairy tales are also found in myths. The sun chases away the darkness in the day, the moon the darkness in the night; both are called haris, or fairhaired, golden, luminous. Indras is haris; as haris, he is now in relation with the sun that thunders in the cloud (Jupiter Tonans), now with the ambrosial moon which attracts rain (Jupiter Pluvius); Zeus gives up the field to his son Dionüsos, and, be it as the sun, be it as the moon, he is always Zeus the refulgent one, Diespiter or the father of light; in the first case, he pierces through the cloud, and in the second through the darkness. Even when the moon or the sun is hidden, when Zeus or Dionüsos lives in his august mystery, they prepare new luminous phenomena. Thus Vishnus is haris, and as haris he is identified now with the sun, now with the moon; or, to speak with more precision, the sun haris and the moon haris are confounded in one sole mythical personage, in one god, who represents them both in various moments, that is to say, in Vishnus. It is desirable that the entirety of the myths should be studied with full comprehension of the whole field which the myth may have enriched, and of the whole period in which the myth may have been developed; but this does not prevent, in special studies, a learned man from addressing himself (as Professors Kuhn, Müller, and Bréal have done) to one special point to prove one special mythological thesis. To this point he applies his lever; he might, perhaps, use it somewhere else; but this causes no prejudice to the essential truth, by bringing his demonstrations to the highest degree of clearness in one point alone. The excess of demonstration can easily be corrected, and meanwhile from these special studies, in which investigation becomes every day more profound, the myths come out in brighter colours. It would be an exaggeration to ascribe to all the myths one unvaried manner of formation, as also to think absolutely that all myths began by a simple confusion of words. Equivocalness, no doubt, played a principal part in the formation of myths; but this same equivocalness would not always have been possible without the pre-existence, so to speak, of pictorial analogies. The child who even now, gazing on the sky, takes a white cloud for a mountain of snow, certainly does not yet know that _parvatas_ meant both cloud and mountain in the Vedic language; he continues, however, to elaborate his elementary myth by means of simple analogies of images. The equivoque of words usually succeeded to the analogy of external figures as they appeared to primitive man. He had not yet named the cloud as a mountain, and yet he already saw it. When the confusion of images took place, that of words became almost inevitable, and only served to determine it, to give it in the external sound a more consistent form, to manifest it more artistically, and to constitute it into a sort of trunk upon which, with the help of new particular observations, of new images, and of new equivoques, an entire tree of mythical genealogies was to sprout out.

It has fallen to me to study the least elevated department of mythology. In the primitive man, who created the myths, the same twofold tendency shows itself which we observe in ourselves--the instinct by which we are allied to the brutes, and the instinct which lifts us to the comprehension and sentiment of the divine or the ideal. The ideal was the portion of few; material instinct that of many: the ideal was the promise of human progress; material instinct represented that inert resisting matter which still acts in opposition to progress. Hence images full of elevated poesy by the side of others, vulgar and gross, which remind us of the relation of man to that petulant and lascivious brute from which it is supposed that he descends. The god who becomes a brute cannot preserve always intact his divinity; the animal form is that of his _avatâras_ or of his decadence, of his fall; it is usually the form assumed by the god or the hero in consequence of a curse or a crime. The Hindoo and the Pythagorean beliefs considered the disguise of the animal as the purgatory of a guilty man. And the god-beast, the hero-beast, the man-beast cannot restrain themselves from brutish acts. The proud and ferocious King Viçvâmitras, the Indian Nebuchadnezzar, when he wanders through the forest in the form of a monster, takes the nature of the forest-rakshasas, the devourer; the beautiful celestial nymphs become sea-monsters, devour the heroes who approach their fountain. Only when the animal form is killed, when the matter is shaken off, does the god or hero assume his divine goodness, beauty, and excellence. Here mythology is not in contradiction to physiology; the character of the mythical personages is the result of their corporeal forms, of their organism, until the natural destiny changes, and a new physical transformation taking place in the species, even its moral characteristics are modified; light is good, darkness is evil, or good only inasmuch as it is supposed to enclose light in its body. From the dark wood rubbed and shaken, from the dark stone struck and dilated, comes forth the spark which causes conflagrations; from the body when exercised and made agile comes forth the splendour of look, of speech, of affection, of thought; the god breaks forth. Substance is dark, but when it is agitated it produces light; as long as it is inert, it is evil, and it is still evil as long as it attracts to itself, as if to a centre of gravity, everything that lives. In as far as the monster swallows beautiful things, it is evil; in as far as it lets them radiate and go forth, it is good. Disperse the cloud, disperse the darkness, dilate and expand the matter which tends to grow narrow and to become inert, to absorb life, and the divine light will come out of it, the splendid intelligent life will appear; the fallen hero, the hero turned to stone, who has become inert substance, will ascend again, agile and refulgent, into the divine heavens.

Certainly, I am far from believing that this was the intention of the myth. Morals have often been an appendix of fables, but they never enter into the primitive fable itself. The elementary myth is a spontaneous production of imagination, and not of reflection. When the myth exists, art and religion may make use of it as an allegory for their æsthetic and moral ends; but the myth itself is devoid of moral conscience; the myth shows, as I have said, only more or less elevated instincts. And if I have sought to compare several physiological laws with the myths, it is not because I attribute to the myth a wisdom greater than that which it contains in reality, but only to indicate that, much better than metaphysics, the science of nature, with the criteria of positive philosophy, can help us to study the original production of myths and their successive development in tradition. I have had to prove in mythology its most humble aspect, that is to say, the god enclosed in the animal; and inasmuch as amongst the various mythical animals which I have endeavoured to describe, several preserve the propitious character and resplendent form of the god, they are generally considered as the form which the deity assumes either to feed secretly upon the forbidden fruit or to fulfil a term of punishment for some former fault of his; in any case, these forms never serve to give us a superlative idea of the divine excellence and perfection. Instead of ascribing to the god all the attributes of beauty, goodness, and strength at once, instead of associating in one all the gods, or all the sympathic forces and figures of Nature, a new divine form was created for each attribute. And because the primitive man was not so much inclined to make abstractions as comparisons (to represent strength, for instance, he had recourse to the image of the bull, the lion, or the tiger; to represent goodness, he figured it in the lamb, the dog, or the dove; to represent beauty, he chose the gazelle, the stag, the peacock, and so on), in the primitive speech of mankind no conjunctions existed by means of which to unite the two terms of a comparison: hence a strong king became the lion, a faithful friend the dog, an agile girl the gazelle, and so on. We sometimes hear our women, in their moments of tenderness for a distant person, or in their impatience to go where their heart calls them, or in their curiosity to know what is going on at such a moment in such a place, say, "I wish I could become a bird to go there." In reality they envy only the bird's wings, in order to fly, to arrive there sooner, and for this desire alone they would renounce all the precious privileges which distinguish them as women. The same sacrifice of their own luminous forms to obtain some determinate end happens in the mythical sky. The god humbles himself in order to make use of some quality which he needs to manifest especially. Thus Indras, to put the generosity of King Çivis to the proof, finds it necessary to follow, in the shape of a hawk, the god Agnis, who had become a dove, and taken refuge with the king. Primitive man does not ascribe to the god any other form than those which he sees round him, and which he knows: the god cannot have wings of his own, divine wings; he must become a bird in order to be winged. Thus, to draw a chariot, or to carry a hero through the air, he must become a hippogriff, that is, horse and bird; and when he falls into the sea, he must enter a fish's body to escape drowning.

The god can therefore exercise his divine power only on the condition of entering into the forms of those animals which are supposed to have the privilege of the qualities which the god is in need of in a special mythical occurrence. But in this animal form in which the god displays in a transcendent manner some particular quality, he dims at the same time a great part of his divine splendour. Having, therefore, surprised the deity in this strange and unlucky moment, the reader will not, I hope, impute to me the poor figure which the deity has had to make in many pages of this work; nor will he think evil of me if I have deprived him, perchance, of some illusion in compensation for some imperfect, but perhaps not useless revelation.

INDEX.

(_This Index is compiled at the instance of the Publisher, and is not by the Author._)

Absalom and his hair, i. 334.

Achilleus, horses of, i. 351.

Acheloos, horn of, i. 266.

Açvinâu, the, i. 18, 19; friendship for Tritas, 25; awakening of, 27; and the aurora, 30; eyes to the blind, feet to the lame, 32, 36; and Kabandhas, 63; the sons of, 78; as the two ears of Vishnus, 81, 285-287, 300-302, 304, 306-308, 310, 315, 319, 321, 327, 370; ass of, 371.

Adam and Eve, legend of, ii. 411.

Aditis and the cow, in Vedic literature, i. 5, 6, 23, 70, 74.

Adonis, ii. 14-16.

Adrikâ, the nymph-fish, ii. 331; son and daughter of, 332.

Æschylos, fabled death of, ii. 197.

Æsculapius, i. 353.

Afrasiab, i. 114, 116, 117.

Agas and synonyms, i. 402.

Agnis, as the fire-god, i. 10; adjutant to Indras, 13, 299, 301.

Agnus Dei, sacrifice of the, i. 423.

Ahalyâ, legend of, i. 414.

Ahura Mazda, i. 97, 109.

Aiêtas, bulls of, i. 267.

Ai-Kan, story of, i. 146.

Alexander the Great, i. 119; and augury, ii. 178; and the fish, 333; and the crab, 355.

Allwis, the dwarf, i. 207, 225, 260, 261.

Amalthea, i. 430.

Amazons, the, i. 211, 212.

Ambrosia, i. 5; giver of, 18; the milk which forms, 52, 54; contest for, 53; the demons and, 53; Gandharvas, guardians of, 53, 81; of the cow, 275, 276; the origin of, ii. 361; the phallical reference of, 361, 365.

Ampelos, i. 267.

Amphisbhæna, the, ii. 386.

Anantas, the serpent, ii. 398, 399.

Angadas, i. 337.

Animals, gradation of, for sacrifice, i. 44; substitutes for, in sacrifice, 44; battles of tame and savage, 186; inviolability of the mysteries of, 246; mythical identification of, ii. 123; colours of, in mythology, 295, 296.

Ansumant, i. 332.

Antony, St, the Vedic, i. 47; and the hog, ii. 6.

Antelopes and the Marutas, ii. 83, 84; king disguised as an, 86.

Ants, the, and the serpent, ii. 44; and the shepherd's son, 45; and the grain, 47; and the horses, 50; Indian, 50, 51; that dig up gold, 51; the monster, 51.

Apâlâ, Indras, and the somas, ii. 3; and her ugly skin, 5.

Aphroditê, i. 394; and Hermes, ii. 197.

Apollo, and Laomedon, i. 279; Smintheus, ii. 68; and the crow, 254.

Apple-tree, the legend of, i. 251; the mythical, 405; and the goat, 405.

Aquila and Aquilo, ii. 191, 192.

Arabs, the, saying of, ii. 11.

Arachnê, ii. 163.

Arcadia, i. 387, 390.

Ardshi-Bordshi Khan, the history of, i. 120; stories from, 134, 139.

Ardvî Çûra Anâhita, the Persian, i. 99, 100.

Argos panoptes, i. 418.

Argus, ii. 327.

Argunas, i. 79, 104.

Ariadne, i. 212.

Arkas, ii. 118.

Arnê, ii. 259.

Artemis and Aktaion, ii. 86; the huntress, 87; and hind, 88.

Arunas, i. 292.

Ases, the three, and the eagle, ii. 191.

Ashis Vaguhi, i. 108, 109.

Ass, the, among the Greeks and Romans, i. 259, 260; in the East, 360; in the West, 360; mistakes about, 361; Christianity powerless to redeem, 361, 362; hymn in honour of, 361, 362; treatment of, by the Church, 363; downtrodden condition of, 363; in the Rigvedas, 364; names of, 364, 365; of Apuleius, 366; which carries mysteries, 367; and flight into Egypt, 367; of the Açvinâu, 371; of Indras, 371; phallic nature of, 372, 373; chastisement of, for phallic offences, 372, 373; fall of, in the Rigvedas, 372, 374; the demoniacal, 374, 376; slowness, 374; the golden, 375, 376; the Hindoo, 377; and the jackal, 377, 378; -lion, 378, 379; -musician, 378, 379; three-legged, braying, 379; and lion, 380; braying of, and the merchants, 380; and Vesta, 384; and the Trojans, 386; ears of, 386; skin of, 388; that throws gold from its tail, 388; and the waters of Styx, 390; horned, of India, 390, 391; horn of the Scythian, 390, 391; and Silenos, 391, 392, 394; and Bacchus, 392; and the talisman, 393; skin of, 394; proverbs about, 394; the combed, 395; shadow and nose, 395; golden, of Apuleius, 395; uncontainedness, 396; that brays, 397, 398; in hell, 398; knowledge of, 398.

Assassins, story of the king of the, ii. 35.

Atavism in mythology, i. 199.

Atli, i. 226.

Attis, the Phrygian, ii. 409.

Audhumla, the cow, i. 224.

Aulad, the warrior, i. 112, 113.

Aurora, the cow, process of re-creating, i. 20; cow of abundance, 26; relations to Indras, 27; the milk of, 27; and her cows, 25, 29; the girl, the swift one without feet, 30, 31; the evening, perfidy of, 32; as a sorceress, 33; persecutions of, 34; the saviour, 35; once blind, now seeing and sight-giving, 36; and the night, 36-38; the sisters, 38; the younger, 38, 39; nuptials of, and its conditions, 39; fruit of the nuptials of, 39, 40; and Rakâ, 50; characteristic form of, 50; as a cow, 51; mother of the sun, 51; rich in pearls, 56; and the moon, 56, 65; the Persian, 100-102, 121-125, 146; awakener of, 163, 170; amours of, 324; the two, and the fox, ii. 124.

Avesta, the, i. 109, 110.

Bacchus and the asses, i. 392.

Bâlin and Sugrîvas, i. 312, 313; ii. 100, 101.

Barrel, the mythical, i. 197.

Basiliça, story of, i. 298, 299.

Batrachomyomachia, the, ii. 71.

Battos the shepherd, i. 279.

Bear, at blind-man's-buff with the maiden, ii. 69; and Vicvâmitras, 109; king of the bears, 109; in the forest of honey, 109; eater of honey, 110; and peasant, 110-112; duped by the peasant, 112; and the fox, 113; king and the twins, 114, 115; the demoniacal, and the two children, 115, 116; disguises of, 117; woman in the den of, 117, 118; half bear half man, 118; as musician, 118, 119.

Beaver, the, ii. 79, 80.

Bees and the Açvinâu, ii. 215; Vedic gods as, 216; as moon, 217; from the bull's carcase, 217; in Finnish mythology, 218; spiritual and immortal, 218-220; wax of, 219; and young hero, 220; as musician, 223.

Beetle, the, and eagle, ii. 209; the sacred, 209; red, 209, 210; names of the red, 210, 211; and first teeth of children, 211; worship of the red, 211, 212; green, 214.

Bellerophontes, i. 305, 338.

Berta, i. 85; the Russian Queen, 218; Queen, legend of, 251-257; large-footed, 253.

Betta and the cake-youth, ii. 238, 239.

Bharatas, King, ii. 85.

Bharadvâgas, ii. 275, 276.

Bhîmas the terrible, i. 77-79, 104.

Bhogavatî, city of, ii. 403.

Bhrigus and Cyavanas, ii. 10.

Binding, vanquishing by, i. 106, 107.

Birds, language of, i. 151, 152; the mythical impersonations of, ii. 168, 169; the wise, story of, 169-172; virtue of feathers of, 172; the language of, 174; story of, and the queen, 175; excrement of, 176; the blue, 176; Semiramis and, 176; as diviners, 177; auguries from, 178; the, of Bretagne, 271, 272.

Bitch, the mythical, ii. 19-25; as spy, 35.

Blind lame one, the, i. 31, 32.

Blue Beard, the Esthonian, i. 168.

Boar, the, of Erymanthus, ii. 9; of Meleagros, 9; the monster wild, in the Rigvedas, 9, 10; Indo-European tradition of, 13; tusks of, 15.

Brahmadattas and the crab, ii. 356.

Brahmanâs, the, i. 414.

Bréal, M., i. 263.

Bribus, ii. 308.

Bridge, the mythical, i. 228.

Brian, the Celtic hero, i. 239, 240.

Brother, the third, i. 79, 83; the Turanian, and his dream, 139-142; the riddle-solving eldest Turanian, 142; the third, in quest of the lost cow, 155, 156; journey to hell, 157; as counsellor, 156, 159; royal, as peasant, 162; awakener of the princess of the seven years' slumber, 162, 163; who mounts to heaven, 176; and the tree-purchaser, 176; endeavour of, to milk the bull, 177; who snaps his fingers, 184; ascent into and descent from heaven of, 189, 190; who steals from the other two, 194; and the flying-ship, 205; in bronze, silver, and gold, 291.

Brothers, the three, i. 77, 80, 82, 104; the Persian, 105; the two, 107, 108, 120; the three, 109, 111, 125, 128; the four, and the pearls, 127; the six, Calmuc story of, 128, 129; the two, Calmuc story of, 130; the two Calmuc, rich and poor, 131, 132; the two (lion and bull), and the fox, 134; the three, 148, 153, 156, 161; the three dwarf, story of, 161, 162; the two rich and poor, and magic stone, 177; the three, of the purse, whistle, and mantle, 288, 289; the two, who go one to the right and the other to the left, 317, 319, 327.

Brünhilt, i. 212.

Brutus, the first, i. 199.

Bufonite, ii. 384.

Buhtan and the fox, ii. 134, 135.

Bull, the sun a, i. 4; the, fecundator of the cow, 5; the great bellowing, 7-10; the horns of, 9; a symbol of royalty, 44; of the Persians, 95; the excrement of, 80, 95; disembodied soul of, 97; ambrosial, 99; capacity of, for drinking, 175; in the council of animals, 185; which comes out of the sea, 222, 223; which carries the maiden, 223; about to be sacrificed, 270; without entrails, 270, 271.

Buri, i. 224.

Butterfly, the mythical, ii. 213, 214.

Butter-ears, the cat, ii. 53, 54.

Bucephalus, i. 338.

Cabala, i. 73.

Cacus, i. 280, 281.

Caduceus of Mercury, ii. 219, 220.

Çakuntalâ, i. 219.

Calf, the, as marriage-priest, i. 257.

Çambaras, cities of, i. 13.

Çantanus, myth of, i. 67, 68.

Canicula, the, ii. 33.

Çaoka, i. 98.

Çaradvat, ii. 332.

Çarmishthâ, the witch, i. 83, 84.

Carp, the, ii. 351, 352.

Carpus, ii. 352.

Cat, the white, ii. 42; penitent, 54; fox, and fattened mouse, 56; and sparrow, 56; dog, and ring, 56, 57; and dog and supposititious child, 57; and moon, 58; and Diana, 58; and St Martha, 58; and Freya, 59; and St Gertrude, 59; the chattering, 59; and fox, 59; and cock, 59; and lamb, 60; the grateful, 60; the white, Blanchette, 61; and the house, 62.

Cats, the enchanted, ii. 62; the black, 62, 63; ill-omened apparitions of, 63; and witches, 63, 64; the two, 64.

Çavarî, i. 64, 66, 69.

Cerberi, the, i. 49.

Cerire, i. 117.

Chameleon, the, ii. 161.

Charlemagne, tradition of, i. 161; and Orlando, 256.

Children, king of, story of, i. 135, 136.

Chimæra, the, ii. 158.

Chinese, the, and Little Tom, i. 336.

Christ and Prometheus, ii. 40.

Christopher, St, and Christ, ii. 57; and lark, 274; and the cocks, 284.

Chrysaor, i. 305.

Cianna and the grateful ant, ii. 46.

Cicada, the, ii. 223, 224.

Cienzo and Meo, story of, i. 329, 330.

Cinderella, origin of the legend of, i. 31, 101, 126, 161; the Russian, 196, 197; ii. 5, 197, 281, 304.

Circe and the ass's head, i. 366; and the companions of Odysseus, ii. 6.

Çivas, the _deus phallicus_, i. 44, 59; ii. 160.

Claudius, Publius, and the auguries, ii. 291.

Clodoveus and St Martin, i. 356.

Clouds, the, i. 6-9; mythical conceptions of, 11, 12; sky with, as a forest, 14; as mountains, 61; battles in, 62; as barrels, 63.

Cock, the mythical functions of, ii. 278; and Mars, 280; Indras, the paramour of Ahalyâ, as a, 280; and hen in India and Persia, and sacredness of the, 282, 284; crowing of, 282, 285, 286; Christus invoked as a, 283; in the Gospels, 283; the miraculous, 284; of night, 285; and Minec' Aniello, 287; Esthonian legends of, 288; hitting the, 289; as a symbol, 290; -fights, 290; the Danes and, 290; auguries from, 291.

Coition, mythical, i. 348.

Cornucopia, Scandinavian, i. 225.

Cosmogony, the Persian, ii. 412.

Cosimo and the fox, ii. 135, 136.

Cow and the Bull, the, origin and meaning of the myth, i. 3, 4; respect paid to, in the family, 46.

Cow, the infinite, celestial, i. 5, 6; son of the, 5; -child, the spotted, 6, 14; as monster, 15; -moon, 19; -aurora, 19, 20; of abundance, 26, 95; hide of, as symbol of fecundity, 46, 47; sour milk of, as favourable to generation, 47; milk-yielding, of night, 48; invocation of the spotted, 50; the sacred, of the Persians, 97; purification by the excrement, 99; pearl excrement of, 129; the black, 167; and the weather, 174; Vedic, double aspect, 175; filled with straw and sparrows, 187; of abundance, Scandinavian, 224; red, 228; German proverbs relating to, 229; and dwarf Allwis, 260; testicles of, and the jackal, 233; the, that spins, 250; the Sabine, 268; the sacrificed, 269; the ashes of, 276.

Cow-cloud, the, i. 14, 15, 74.

Cow-moon, the, i. 274, 275.

Cows, the, of night, i. 17; the two, 27; that do not cover themselves with dust, 28, 31; seen in dreams, 47, 48; coming forth of, 50.

Cowherd, the hero disguised as, i. 168, 169.

Cox, Mr, i. 262, 263.

Crab, the, in the riddle, ii. 354; celestial, in June, 354; in the myth of Herakles, 355; and Alexander, 355; and the deceiving crane, 355; and the serpent, 356; sun and moon as, 356; and fox, 357; "from a man, a," 358; as a charm, 359; Cancer, the, 359.

Crescentia, the Persian, i. 121.

Cross, the, ii. 411; of paradise, 411.

Crow, the, in borrowed feathers, ii. 246; mythical significance, 250, 251; and cheese, 251; disguised, 251, 252; the enchanted, and Râmas, 252; cunning of, 253; Râmas and Apollo as, 253; and Pallas and Yamas, 254; of evil omen, 254; the giant, 255; and the dead, 255; and the old man, 255; the procrastinating, and Phoebus, 256; as messenger, 257; the egg, 257; brood, 257.

Cuckoo, the, and Zeus, i. 248; its mythical congeners, ii. 226; Indras as a, 228, 229, 231; birth of the, 231; a phallical symbol, 232; and Hêra and Zeus, 232; and marriage, 232; as mocker, 233; harbinger of spring, 233; sinister aspect of, 234; as cuckold, 234; as a bird of omen, 234, 235; immortal and omniscient, 235; and nightingale, 235.

Çunahçepas, i. 35; story of, 69-72, 74.

Cupid and Psyche, i. 368, 369; ii. 378.

Cypresses, riddle of the two, ii. 174.

Cyrus, legend of, i. 110, 118

Cyzicene, the, i. 275.

Dædalus and Icarus, ii. 186.

Dadhyanc, the head of, i. 303, 304.

Dadhikrâ, the solar horse, i. 337.

Dakshas, ii. 364.

Danaidæ, the, i. 265.

Daphnê, i. 170, 273.

Darius Hystaspes, myth of, i. 346.

Daughter, the third, and the toad, i. 381; and the magician, 382, 383.

Dawns, the two, i. 27.

Dejanira, i. 212.

Delilah, counter-types of, i. 212.

Deluge, the Vedic, ii. 335.

Demons, mountain of, i. 96.

Demosthenes on Athênê, ii. 247.

Devayânî, the nymph, i. 83, 84.

Devil, the, as a bull, i. 184; and the waters, ii. 390, 391.

Dhâumyas, three disciples of, i. 79.

Diana (Hindoo), ii. 43.

Dead, the, good luck brought by, i. 198.

Dionysos, ii. 217; and the panther, 160.

Dioskuroi, i. 304, 305; the legend of, 318.

Dîrghatamas, i. 84, 85.

Dog, the, and cat, ii. 56, 57.

Dolphin, the, ii. 351.

Dominic, St, and the dog, ii. 40.

Domitian and the astrologer, ii. 39.

Dove, in the Rigvedas, ii. 297; Agnis as, 297; Moses and the flesh of, 297; self-sacrificing, 297; and the ant, 298; stories of the maiden (and prince) transformed into, 298; story of the twelve sons changed into, 298, 299; of the prince and servants changed into, 299-301; the two, and Gennariello, 300-302; the funereal, 303; as announcer of the resurrection, 304; the daughters of Anius changed into, 304; the two, and Little Mary, 304; and Zezolla, 305; doves and the rosebush-maiden, 305; Peristera changed into, 305; and Venus, 305; the laughing, 306; and Aspasia, 306; infidelity of, 306.

Drinking, trial of, i. 206.

Drusilla, Livia, and the white hen, ii. 196.

Duck, swan, or goose, the, Agnis as, ii. 307; the Marutas, and the horses of the Açvinâu as, 307; and golden egg, 308; the sun as, 309; in the lake, 309; the white, and her three sons, 311; death of, 311; that lays a golden and a silver egg, 311, 312.

Drunkenness, and madness, ii. 348, 349.

Dundus, i. 75, 76.

Dundubhis, the cloud-monster, i. 75.

Eagle, the, and Zeus, ii. 195-197; and the classic heroes, 196; the Hellenic, 196; and Aphroditê, 197.

Earrings, theft and recovery of the, of Karnas, i. 80, 81.

Eel, the, as phallical, sacrificial, and divine, ii. 341; proverbs about, 341; eating, 342; with two heads and two tails, 342; transformation into a fountain and an, 343; the maiden changed into an, 343; and monster-serpent, 343; diabolical, 344; the epic exploit, 344.

Eggs, hatching of, and thunder, ii. 281; worship of, 291; the golden, 292; beginning with, 292, 293.

Elephant and the hare, ii. 77; mythical qualities of, 91; general mythical significance, 92; Airavanas, 92; the white, overcome by the monkey, 93; in the lake, 93; that supports the world, 92, 93, 95; and the tortoise, 93-95; the Vedic, 94.

Emilius, the lazy, and the grateful pike, i. 195-198.

Empusa, i. 367.

Endymion, i. 429.

Epics, the, killing of the serpent the theme of all, ii. 392.

Eros as a fish, ii. 340.

Esmeralda and Quasimodo, loves of, i. 421.

Eulenspiegel, ii. 246.

Eurôpê, i. 264, 265, 272.

Exchanges, tales of unfortunate, i. 176.

Farquhar II., death of, ii. 14.

Fecundity, symbols of, i. 49.

Feridun, episode of old age of, i. 111.

Finger, the knowing little, i. 166; Small Little, story of, ii. 151, 152.

Finns, the, the epopee of, i. 150.

Firefly, the, ii. 212, 213.

Firud, i. 117.

Fish, the laughing, i. 249; symbolic meaning of, 249; the April, 250; and the man's seed, 250; celestial metamorphosis into, ii. 331; become a stone, 331; laughing, 333; Alexander and the, 333; the little gold, 334; Vishnus as a, 334, 335; and Aphroditê, 340; phallical, 341; wise and stupid, 349; and the ring, 350; the heroic, 350, 351; and pearl, 352; sacred, 353.

Fly, the, and bear, ii. 221; and ant, 222.

Flies, ii. 221.

Fleece, the golden, i. 146, 429.

Flute, the magic, i. 161, 195.

Fool, the fortunate, i. 195; the would-be, fortune-making, i. 240.

Fox, the, and the bear, ii. 113; mythical significance, 122; and jackal, 123; double aspect of legendary, 123, 124; the wolf and honey, 128, 129; and the old man whose wife is dead, 129, 130; as weeper, 130; and tail, 131; and four hungry animals, 131; the hungry, and bird, 131; and wolf, 132, 133; and lost girl, 133; and the cheese, 133; as go-between, 134; and Buhtan, 134, 135; and Cosimo, 135; and hare, 136, 137; and cock, 137, 138; knaveries and cunning, 139; and other animals, 139, 140; the sick, and lion, 140; human antitype, 140; Lycaon, 147.

Formicola, Captain, and the shepherd's son, ii. 45.

Freya, i. 212; the foot of, 253.

Frog, the, and mouse, ii. 71, 72.

Frogs, the, in the sky, ii. 373; imitating the sounds of, 373; and the serpent or heron, 374; in the 103d hymn of the Rigvedas, 374; and Indras and Zeus, 374; and the moon, 375-377; the dumb, 375; and Proserpina, 375; and serpent, 376; and rook, 376; the diabolical, 376, 377; two dragons in the form of, 377; the maiden changed into, 377-379.

Gahs, the, i. 98.

Galanthis, ii. 53.

Galathea, i. 421, 422.

Gandhamâdanas mountains, i. 52, 55.

Gandharvas, the, i. 52, 53, 149, 160, 311; appetites of, 365, 367, 369, 370, 379.

Ganeças, ii. 68.

Gangâ, the nymph, i. 68.

Ganges, the, ii. 308.

Ganymede, rape of, ii. 196.

Garatkarus, the wise, i. 68, 69.

Gardabhas, i. 365, 369.

Gargantua, at birth, i. 259.

Garudas, the bird, and elephant, ii. 94, 95; and the monsters, 184; and the birds, 245, 363.

Gâtâyus, the omniscient vulture, ii. 185.

Gazelle, the misleading, ii. 84.

Gefion, voyage of, i. 222.

Gemshid, legend of, i. 95.

Geneviève, the Persian, i. 121, 219.

Gennariello and Milluccio, ii. 300-302.

Geusurva, the, i. 98, 99.

Gerion, the oxen of, i. 273, 277.

Ghoshâ, the leprous, ii. 3, 5.

Giant-monster, the, and dwarf, i. 148, 149.

Giovannino, the fearless, i. 202, 388.

Girl, the, persecuted, i. 121; affianced to three, 123; in the chest, Calmuc story of, 131; seven years old, Esthonian story of, 153; wise, of the wood, 154; the poor, and the lady of the waters (Esth.), 154; the beautiful, and the witch, 218.

Giuseppe, the boy, and the ant's leg, ii. 45, 46.

Gnat, the, ii. 221.

Goat, the, triple aspect of, i. 401; the cloud as, 402; the he-, 402, 403; Açvinâu as, 403; and apple-tree, 405; and walnut-tree, 405; kids of, and wolf, 406, 407; revenge of the goat, 406, 407; mythical meaning, 407; he-, and merchant's daughter, 410; the sacrificed he-, 415, 416; as all-seeing, 418; with seven eyes, 419; with twelve eyes, 419; constellation of the, 421; as rain-bringing, 421; milk of the, 421, 424; blood of the he-, 422; stones, 422; sacrifice of he-, 423; cunning of the she-, 424; the witch and the boy goatherds, 425; and the peasants of Sicily, 426; and the goatherd of Val di Formazza, 426; and the god Thor, 426; in the Scandinavian mythology, 427; the horned, 427, 428; lust of, 427, 428; in Greek mythology, 428.

Gods, the cheating of, i. 44, 45.

Gold, hand of, ii. 32.

Goose, the, and pearl, ii. 309; the miraculous, 312; foot of, 315; the disenchanted, 315; eating of, on St Michael's Day, 316.

Gorgons, the, ii. 9.

Godiva, the Mongol, i. 138.

Grasshopper, the, the wedding of, with the ant, ii. 48, 49; as diviner, 48; song of the wedding, 49.

Griffins, the, ii. 204, 205.

Gudrun, i. 226.

Guhas, i. 58.

Guhas, King, ii. 333.

Halcyon, the, phallical nature of, ii. 269; the Greek, 270.

Hansas, the, ii. 306, 307, 309.

Hanumant in quest of the herb of health, i. 52, 57-59, 61, 64, 78, 89; the monkey, ii. 101, 106.

Haoma, the ambrosial god, i. 97, 104.

Harayas and Haritas, i. 376.

Hare, the mythical, ii. 76; habitat and king, 76; and the elephant, 77; and hungry lion, 77; and the lion, 78; and dying eagle, 78; and cave of the wild beasts, 79; and lamb, 79; transfigured by Indras, 79; and parturition, 80; that sleeps with eyes open, 80; and bear, 81; and a wedding procession, 81; and the girl that rides on it, 82.

Hariçcandras, i. 69-72.

Haris and hari, meanings of, i. 376; ii. 99, 320.

Harpies, the, ii. 201, 202.

Hawk, mythical meaning of, ii. 192, 193; as a badge of knighthood, 193; sacredness of, 193; and Attila, 194; and the Greek gods, 194; superstitious beliefs about, 194.

Heads, exchange of, i. 303, 304.

Health, herb of, i. 52-54; Gandharvas, guardians of, 53.

Heaven, cup of, i. 8; battle in, 10, 11.

Hedgehog and wolf, ii. 11, 12.

Helen, the Argive, i. 170, 212; ii. 318.

Hen, the crowing, ii. 284, 285; dreaming of the brood of the, 288.

Herakles and Augeias, i. 143; and Cacus, 232, 235, 266, 267; and the golden cup, 273; and the oxen of Gerion, 277; competes with the he-goat, 428; and the boar, ii. 9.

Hermes and Admetos, i. 279; and Sârameyas, ii. 22.

Hermits, the dwarf, ii. 364.

Hero, the solar, riddle of, as a wonderful cowherd, i. 29; maiden helper, 209; concealed, 237; in the night, 326; saved by a tree, 334, 335.

Heroes, the, hunger and thirst of, i. 8; chief arena of, 15; weapons of, 62; mountain of, 97; biblical, 118; disguise of, ii. 2; noises at the birth of, 373.

Heroines, perverted, i. 211, 212.

Hesperides, garden of the, i. 274; ii. 410, 418.

Hippolytos, the legend of, i. 345.

Hippomenes and Atalanta, ii. 159.

Hog, as guise of the hero, ii. 2; the skin of, 5; bristles of, 5; dedicated to St Anthony, 6; lust of, 6; as Vishnus, 7, 8; and wolf, 11.

Holda, the dark, i. 251, 252.

Hoopoe, the, ii. 230.

Horse, the, of the sun, i. 290, 291; black, 291, 292, 295; the three, 291, 296; tail and mane, 295; and the cat, 317; the myth of, 330, 331; fat of, 332; the strength of Indras, 336; the symbolic meaning of head of, 339; the hero's, 340; binding of, 341; the neighing of, 346, 347; tears of, 349, 350; mythical, 349; the foam of, 352; the hoofs of, 353, 354; and the gods, 355.

Husband, the wicked, i. 124.

Husbands, exchange of, i. 317.

Idol, the wooden, Æsop's fable of, i. 177.

Ichneumon, the, ii. 51-53.

Iliad, the, most solemn moment of, i. 16.

Ilvalas and Vâtâpis, legend of, i. 414.

Indras, the rôle of, i. 7, 15; appetite and food, 8; horns of the bull, 9; as the fire-god Agnis, 10; his fields of battle, 12, 15; great exploits of, 12; threefold victory, 13, 14; weapons of, 14; companion of Somas, 18, 19; the triple, 20; moments of, 20, 23; special function, 27; relations to the aurora, 27; and the blind lame one, 32; destroyer of the witch Aurora, 33; lover of the aurora, 35; personified in Râmas, 59-61; slays Viçvarûpas, 76; fall of, 76; protector of Utankas, 80, 81; transformation, 89; quarrel of, with the Marutas, 106; horses of, 351; as a ram, 403; with the thousand eyes, 418; the rudder of, ii. 7; as a wild boar, 8; and the dwarf hermits, 95; and Vishnus, 99, 100; and the monkeys, 101; and Vritras, 154, 155; deprived of strength and beauty, 155; as a hawk, 181; and Ahalyâ, 280, 281, 330; impotent, 326; unchaining the waters, 330; drunk, 349; and the monster, 393, 394; killing the monster, 394, 395.

Indus, i. 18.

Io, i. 264, 265, 271, 272.

Iphiklos, ii. 198, 199.

Isfendiar, seven adventures of, i. 118.

Iskander, legend of, i. 119.

Ivan, three essays of, i. 301, 302; (and Mary), with horse, dog, and apple-tree, ii. 28; resuscitated, 29; the three, sons respectively of the bitch, the cook, and the queen, 29; and the ring, 345; and his frog-bride, story of, 377-379.

Ivan Tzarevic and the serpent, i. 177; and Helen and the bear, 178; and Princess Mary, 179-182; and the demoniacal cow, 181; and the magic apples, 182; and the witch in the balance, 183; and the hero Nikanore, 184; and the theft of the black bull, 186; son of the black girl, 188; and his brothers, killing the serpents, 191; and the rescue of the three sisters, 194; of the dog, 194; the drinker, 194; and the dead body of his mother, 198, 199; courage of, 201; variations of, 202-204; horse of, 340.

Ivan Durak and the humpbacked horse, i. 293, 294; and the fire-breathing grey horse, 296; who, mounted, three times kisses the princess through twelve glasses, 297.

Ivanushka and little Helen, i. 409.

Jack and the beanstalk, i. 244.

Jackal and the ass, i. 378; the perfidious, ii. 125; friend of the hero, 125; in borrowed feathers, 126; the, inquisitive and vile, 126; and the parrots, 127.

Joan lou Pec, i. 397.

John, little, and his red shoes, i. 195, 196.

Johnny and the goose-swans, ii. 309, 310.

Jonah (the Hindoo), ii. 337.

Jorsh, the, ii. 336-345; trial by the fishes of, 346-349; and Reinecke Fuchs, 348.

Julius Cæsar, horse of, i. 338, 350.

Jupiter Ammon, i. 429.

Kabandhas, the monster, i. 62-64.

Kaçapas, the, ii. 362.

Kaçyapas, the fecundator, ii. 364.

Kadmos, i. 265, 272.

Kai Khosru, the hero, i. 117, 118.

Kan Pudai, Altaic story of, i. 144, 145.

Kapilas, ravisher of the sacrificial horse, i. 331.

Kapis, ii. 98, 99.

Katoma and the hero's horse, i. 340, 341.

Kâuçalyâ, i. 332.

Kawus, King, i. 112, 113, 115, 116.

Kentaurs, the, i. 367-369.

Ker Iupta and the third brother, i. 290.

Kereçâçpa, the Persian hero, i. 106, 108; myth of, 313, 314, 335.

King's son, the, and the peasant girl, i. 163-166.

Kishmar, cypress of, i. 96.

Krimhilt, i. 212.

Krishnas, celebration of birth of, i. 51; father of, 75.

Kruth, the bird, and tortoise, ii. 369, 370.

Kuhn, A., i. 263.

Kumbhakarnas, the monster, ii. 400, 401.

Lakshmanas, i. 55; and Râmas, 62, 63, 66, 77; ii. 85.

Lame, the, and the blind, i. 217.

Lapillus Alectorius, ii. 287.

Lanka, three brothers of, i. 77.

Lark, the, in cosmogony, ii. 273, 274; and St Christopher, 274; the crested, 275; Bharadvâgas, 275.

Leaf, the magic, i. 155, 156.

Lear, King, in embryo, i. 85; ii. 230.

Lêda, ii. 185.

Lion, the, and the bull, i. 278; (and tiger) symbol of strength and majesty, ii. 153; Indras as a, 154; virtue of hair of, 155; lion's share, 156; -sun, the western, 157; sign of, 159; Androcles and, 157; the Nemæan, 158; afraid of the cock, 159.

Lizard, the, as witch, ii. 385; as omen, 385; the little, 385; the green, 386, 387; and poor Laric, 387.

Locust, the nocturnal, ii. 47.

Lohengrin and Elsa, the legend of, ii. 317-319.

Loki, i. 226, 227; and the pike, ii. 333, 334.

Louse, the, stories of, ii. 222.

Lucìa, St, the Vedic, i. 36, 254; feast of, ii. 210.

Lucius, of Apuleius, i. 366.

Lunus, i. 58; the god, 139, 324.

Lynx, the, ii. 54.

Madonna the old, and the maiden who combs her head, i. 180.

Magician, the, of the seven heads, ii. 36.

Magpie, the, in mythology, ii. 258, 259; as a robber, 259; knowledge and malice of, 259; bird of omen, 260.

Mahâbhâratam, the, most solemn moments of, i. 16.

Mahrusa, i. 125.

Maiden, the enchanted, and her hair, i. 146; Esthonian story of the prince and persecuted, 151-153; and the golden slipper, 208; that by a puppet weaves a shirt for a prince, 208; the, and the apple-tree, 251; the fairies' favourite, and the enchanted prince, ii. 286, 287.

Man and woman, the old, with the nine cows, i. 132, 133; the old, who essays heaven in vain with his wife, 190; and the cabbage, beanstalk, &c., 190, 191; the old, and the beanstalk, 243.

Man-bull, Calmuc tale of, i. 129.

Mandaras, the, ii. 361, 362.

Manus, ii. 248; and Vishnus as a fish, 335.

Mansûr, i. 315.

Marcellus, St, the legend of, ii. 159.

Mare's head and the two girls, i. 298.

Mârgâras, ii. 42, 43.

Marîças, the stag, i. 64; ii. 85.

Mars and the wild boar, ii. 14.

Martin, St, and birds of, ii. 270.

Marutas, or winds, i. 5-7, 10, 12; kindred of, 17, 59; ii. 7; horses of, 83, 84; as monkeys, 99.

Marziella and the geese, ii. 313.

Mary and the cow's ear, and the step-mother with three daughters, i. 179-182; little, and the slipper, 196, 197.

Matsyâs, the, ii. 332.

Mâyâvin, the monster, i. 313.

Max Müller, i. 262, 263; and the panegyric of the frogs, ii. 371, 372.

Medea, of the Vedas, i. 33, 35.

Medea, i. 212.

Medusa, i. 305.

Menas, ii. 87.

Merchant, synonymous with miser, i. 184; son of the, who transforms himself into a horse, 342; the, and his three daughters, 410.

Mercury, i. 335; legend of, ii. 23.

Merdi Gânbâz, the faithful, i. 120.

Merhuma, the story of, i. 120, 121, 315.

Merula, the fish, ii. 340.

Metempsychosis, ii. 328.

Mice and the dead, ii. 67; apparitions of, 67; men transformed into, 67; presages from, 67, 68; and lion and elephant, 68; war of, with the frogs, 72.

Michael, St, i. 183.

Midas, myth of (the Mongolian), i. 381; (the Phrygian), 382, 383; as musical critic, 385; ears of, 386; as a miser, 389; the progenitor and judge, 390.

Milky-sea, the, i. 52; -way, the, 228.

Millstone, the devil under the, i. 114.

Milôn of Kroton, ii. 113, 147.

Minotaurus, the Calmuc, i. 129, 265.

Minucehr, the hero, i. 112.

Mithra, the solar god, i. 95, 102, 103; bow of, 107.

Mitras, the sun, a witch at a riddle, i. 30, 31, 52.

Mole, the, ii. 73, 74.

Monkey, original home of myth of, ii. 97; equivalents, 97, 98; and Vishnus, 99; mythical significations, 99; king of, 100, 101; Hanumant, 101-106; mistaken for a man, 103; tail of, 107; divination from, 107; and Jove, 108; as stupid, 108; musician, 119.

Monster, the celestial, i. 10, 12; subdued by Indras, 12-14; that keeps back the waters, ii. 393; killing of, 394, 395; and the egg of the duck, 395; the eggs of, 396; the aquatic, 404.

Moon, the mythical nature and office of, i. 18; as a pearl, 54; as a good fairy, 56, 57; as a bull, 58; Indian, ii. 87.

Mother of gold and her three dwarf sons, i. 153; story of the, who recovers her hands and son by throwing her arms into a fountain, ii. 31; and the hands of gold, 31.

Mouse, transformed by the penitent into a beautiful maiden, ii. 65, 66; and the mountain, 66; and maiden, 69; the grateful, 70; and sparrow, 70, 71; the, Psicharpax, 71.

Muses, the, and the bee, ii. 223.

Mûsh (mûshas, &c.), ii. 43.

Music in the heavens, sorrow-inspired, i. 149.

Mythology, the Greek, i. 262; mobile nature of the objects of, 319, 320; allegorical treatment of, 421; a Semitic, ii. 412; the science of, 422; principal error in the scientific study of, 422, 423; concord of the learned in, 423; way to study, 424; animal, 425; product of imagination, 427.

Myths, the central interest and most splendid moments of, i. 15, 16; development of objects in the, into personalities with relationships, 320, 321; the negative as a factor in the formation of, 322; the uncertain subjective in, 323; entrance of variety into, 324; interpretation of, 323-326.

Nakulas, i. 311; ii. 43, 51, 52.

Nalas, ii. 404.

Neptune, i. 430.

Netherworld, the, ii. 403.

Nibelungen, the, most solemn moments of, i. 16, 257.

Night and the aurora, i. 36, 37.

Nightingale, as prognosticator, ii. 236; whistling of, 237; propitious to lovers, 239.

Nisos and Scylla, ii. 197.

Noah, the Vedic, ii. 335.

Nose, the bleeding, Calmuc story of, i. 131.

Nükteus, ii. 246, 247.

Numbers, sacred, i. 6, 76, 77; ii. 416.

Odin, i. 224, 226, 227.

Odysseus, i. 266.

Oidin-oidon, i. 398, 399.

Okeanos, the bull-headed, i. 267.

Onokentaurs, i. 367-369.

Orpheus, i. 149, 160.

Otter, the monster, ii. 391.

Owl, the, as the bird of death, ii. 244; as an evil genius, 244; and vulture, 244, 245; and the crows, 245, 246; cunning, 246; and Athênê, 247; eggs of, 247; the male, 247, 248; prophetic faculty of, 249; horned, 249, 250.

Ox, the speaking, i. 247; and Zeus, 248; as priest, 258.

Pallas and the war of the frogs and mice, ii. 72; and the crow, 254.

Pan and Midas, i. 385; and the ass, 387, 391; god of shepherds, 387; at Marathon, 389, 428, 429.

Panayas, the, ii. 19, 20.

Pândavas, the five brothers, i. 77-79.

Pandora, i. 34.

Pandus, ii. 84.

Paravrig, the blind-lame, i. 32.

Parîkshit, King, ii. 84.

Parrot, the, myth of, ii. 320; and the colour haris, 321; as çukas, 321; lunar character of, 322; as counsellor, 322.

Partridge, the devil as, ii. 227; Talaus changed into, 228; and peasant, 228.

Pasiphaë, myth of, i. 237, 266.

Peacock, the mythical equivalents of, ii. 323; the hiding of, 324; as rival of the cuckoo, 324; and dove, 324; Indras as, 325, 326; feather of, and the younger brother, 325; tail of, 326, 327; as a symbol of immortality, 327.

Pearl, the ambrosial, i. 54.

Peasant, riddle-solving, i. 142.

Pêgasos, and Hippocrene, i. 176, 291, 305, 338.

Penelope, i. 428; and he-goat, ii. 163.

Pepin, the times of, i. 252; King, 255, 256.

Peirithoos and Trikerberos, ii. 39.

Perrault, story of, i. 367.

Perrette, the Calmuc, i. 134, 135.

Peter, St, and the dog, ii. 27.

Phaethôn, i. 277; the bull, 277, 343, 344.

Phalaris, the bull, i. 239.

Phineus, ii. 74.

Phrixos and Helle, the Russian, i. 409, 429.

Phoenix, the, mythical significance of, ii. 200, 201; death of, 200.

Piçâcâs, the ass, i. 375, 376.

Piccolino, ii. 151.

Picus, King, ii. 265, 266.

Pike, the luminous, ii. 334; the brown, 337, 338; and Emilius, 338; the phallical, 339; and crab and heron, 339; drunk, 349.

Pimpi, the stupid, and the hog, ii. 10.

Pipetta and the sackful of souls, i. 388.

Pipkin, the miraculous, i. 126; the stories of, 243-245.

Piran and Pilsem, i. 314.

Poem, an epic, i. 141.

Polyphêmos, i. 266.

Porcupine, the, ashes and quills of, ii. 12, 13.

Pork, virtues of, ii. 10, 11.

Porringer, the enchanted, i. 126.

Portugal, third son of the King of, and the dragons, ii. 187-189.

Poseidôn, i. 266.

Pragâpatis, i. 47.

Pretiosa, disguised as a bear, ii. 117.

Priapos, i. 394, 396; and Silenos, 384.

Priçnayas, the, i. 6, 16, 17.

Prince, the, and princess of the bird's egg, i. 170; who three times wins the race, 291; and enchanted mantle, 411.

Princess, three-breasted, i. 86, 122; in the chest, Celtic story of, 241; and the pups, 412.

Proserpina, the Teutonic, i. 252, 260.

Proverb, the, of shutting the stable after the cow is stolen, i. 231; of shutting Peppergate, 231; recovering the cow's tail, 232; of the cow's tail wagging but never falling, 234; of the egg-hatching cow, 238; of the cow and the hare, of the cow and the moon, 241, 242; of hunting by blowing a horn, 242; of the blind cow finding the pea, 243; of the laughing cow, 245; of the spinning cow, 250, 251; of the cow-maid that spins, 250.

Proverbs, German, relating to the cow, i. 229; mythical, 230, 231.

Puppets, the three, i. 207.

Purse, the enchanted, i. 126.

Purûravas, myth of, i. 67.

Pûrus, i. 84.

Pûshan, i. 409.

Pyramos and Thysbe, ii. 157.

Pythagoras once a peacock, ii. 327; the belief of, 328.

Quail, the, in Rigvedas, ii. 276; as symbol of the Tzar, 276; and Hercules and Latona, 277; and moon, 277; the game of, 277; as a bird of omen, 277, 278.

Queen, the blinded, and her servant, i. 218, 219.

Queen-mother, the, and her wicked sister, i. 412.

Rahus, ii. 252.

Râkâ, i. 50, 56.

Ram, the rain-cloud as a, i. 402; Indras, 403; Indras and testicles of, 414; devourer of, 415.

Râmas, the sun, i. 55, 57-59; _alter ego_ of Indras, 59-62; and Lakshmanas, 63, 77, 311, 312, 315;