Chapter III.) that boards for nice work should be planed down equally,

as nearly as may be, from both sides; that the mere dressing off of the surface by hand will sometimes cause a board to warp badly; and that it is better to buy stock of as nearly the required thickness as possible, than to plane it down or split it. It should also be noted that when a board is being sawed in two or split lengthwise with a saw it sometimes springs together behind the saw with so much force that the crack has to be wedged open in order to continue sawing (Fig. 695). Sometimes the crack opens wider instead of closing (Fig. 696). You see from this that you cannot always be sure when you split a board that the parts will retain the shape they had in the original board. In working up large pieces into smaller ones, unexpected twists and crooks will often be found in the smaller pieces which did not exist in the original stock. Sometimes mahogany, for instance, will act in this way very markedly. Strips sawed off from a board, for example, will sometimes immediately spring into very crooked forms, as shown in Fig. 697 (which would not be exaggerated if the pieces were drawn of greater proportionate length).

In splitting stock flatwise, _i.e._, making two thinner boards out of a thick board or plank, a similar result often follows. The latent power set free, so to speak, by suddenly exposing the middle of a board, plank, or other timber to the atmosphere sometimes causes curious developments. It being necessary one day to split for a picture frame a large mahogany board, 1" thick by 2' square, with a circular hole already sawed from the centre, the pieces warped and twisted as the sawing went on (Fig. 698), until, just as they were nearly separated, the whole thing "went off" with a report like a toy pistol, breaking into a dozen pieces and scattering them around the shop.

In very crooked-grained wood you will frequently find uneven and undulating forms of warping and twisting that you do not find in straight-grained pieces, but such wood is often of the most beautiful figure for indoor work. Where the grain is crooked, cropping up to the surface as in Fig. 701, the cut-off ends of the fibrous structure, so to speak, are exposed in places to the atmosphere. These open ends, "end wood," thus brought to the surface are more susceptible to moisture and dryness than the sides of the bundles of fibrous tissue, which tends to produce unequal swelling, shrinking, and warping.

You will see if you look at the ends of logs and stumps that the heart is frequently not in the centre, in some cases taking such a devious course throughout the stem as to make the grain so crooked that no method of sawing will remove the tendency to warp or twist, just shown. Such trees may show a beautiful grain. Even in straight trees the pith is not usually quite straight, and is apt to take a somewhat zigzag course, due to the crooked way the tree grew when young (Fig. 699).

Imagine, for an exaggerated illustration, that you could see with X-rays the pith as crooked as Fig. 699. that shown in Fig. 700. Imagine that from this tree you could saw out the board indicated, keeping with it the whole pith or heart as if it were a wire rope woven in and out of the board, so that the appearance would be somewhat like that shown in Fig. 701. Bear in mind that the annual rings are layers of wood, so to speak, which may vary in thickness, growing around the heart. You will see that these layers, or rings, as they dip below or rise above the surface of the board, will cause the grain to form various patterns, perhaps somewhat as shown in Fig. 701, which makes no claim to accurately showing the grain in this case. In fact, all such variations of grain in lumber are due to the surface of the piece being at an angle with the layers.

In addition, the knots caused by branches, the twisting of the stems screw-fashion (as is seen in cedar), wounds, and other causes, often produce very crooked and tangled grain, and the wood of many broad-leaved trees is sometimes extremely complicated in texture, especially when all these irregularities occur in the same piece. It is the nature of some kinds of mahogany, from whatever cause, to have the fibres strangely interlaced or running in very different directions in layers which are quite near each other.

The warping, twisting, and cracking is obviated in many cases where it is objectionable (as in the wooden frames of machines, the tops of benches) by building up with a number of smaller pieces, of which you will often see illustrations. To do this to the best advantage, the pieces should be selected and put together so that, though the grain will run in the same direction lengthways, the annual rings at the ends will not run together as in a whole beam, but will be reversed or arranged in various combinations, so that the tendencies of the different parts to warp or twist will counteract each other. Instead of a single board, which would naturally become warped in one large curve, a number of strips can be glued up with the grain of the strips arranged in alternate fashion (Fig. 559), so that in place of one large curve the warping will merely result in a slightly wavy line.

Where but one side of a board is seen or used and where the full strength is not needed, warping and twisting can be largely prevented by lengthways saw-cuts on the back or under surface, as in a drawing-board, the crossways strength required being secured by the cleats. Doors and most forms of panelled work also illustrate these matters of swelling and shrinking (see _Doors and Panels_).

_Shakes._--_Heart-shakes_ are cracks radiating from the centre in the line of the medullary rays, widest at the pith and narrowing toward the outside, and supposed to be chiefly caused by the shrinkage of the older wood due to the beginning of decay while the tree is standing (Fig. 702). Slight heart-shakes are common, but if large and numerous or twisting in the length of the log, they injure the timber seriously for cutting up.

_Star-shakes_ are also radiating cracks, but, unlike the heart-shakes, the cracks are widest at the outside, narrowing toward the centre (Fig. 703), and are often caused by the shrinkage of the outer part due to the outside of the tree drying faster than the inside, as it naturally does from being more exposed after being felled; but they are sometimes owing to the beginning of decay and other causes.

_Cup-shakes_ are cracks between some of the annual rings, separating the layers more or less (Fig. 704), sometimes reaching entirely around, separating the centre from the outer portion, and are supposed to be caused by the swaying of the tree in the wind (hence sometimes known as _wind-shakes_), or to some shock or extreme changes of temperature, or other causes.

Combinations of the various shakes may be found in the same log.

=A Few Suggestions about Working-Drawings.=--Drawing is far too extensive a subject to be even briefly treated in a manual on wood-working, but a few general remarks on matters connected with working-drawings may be of help to some.

While an ordinary picture gives a correct idea of how an object looks, we cannot take accurate measurements from it. When we need dimensions, as in practical work, we must have some drawings which will show us at once the exact shapes, sizes, and positions of the various parts. In addition to the picture to give us the general idea, we have for working purposes what are called _elevations_, _plans_, _sections_, etc.

In such a case as that of the little house shown on page 242, the picture (Fig. 363) shows us the appearance of the building, but for purposes of construction, working-drawings should also be made. The view of what you would see if you stood directly in front of this house, with only the front visible, is shown in Fig. 364, and is called the _front elevation_. Stand opposite either side or end, and the view seen is represented in Fig. 364 as the _side elevation_. In the same manner the _rear elevation_ is given. Next imagine yourself in the air directly above the house. This view is called the _plan_.[53] In this case, as the view of the interior is desired, the view is shown as if the roof were removed. If the sides or ends are not alike, as is sometimes the case, two side or end views may be needed. In the case illustrated, inside elevations are also given, to show the construction.

Elevations, whether one or several, must always be taken at right angles to the plan. Although commonly, in simple work, confined to representations of each side or end, they can be taken from any point of view that may be at right angles to the plan. They may be taken from the corners or at any angles that may best show any complicated details of the object. If the object is quite simple, one elevation and the plan, or two elevations without the plan, may be quite sufficient, as the elevation or plan omitted can in such cases be understood at once.

Always make your drawings full-sized when the object to be made is not too large. You are much less likely to make mistakes in taking your dimensions and measurements from a drawing the actual size of the object than where you have to take them from a smaller drawing, and you also can get a better idea from a full-sized drawing just how the object will look. It is a safe-guard, with a drawing which is symmetrical, to lay it out from a centre line, measuring to the right and left.

If you make a drawing of which each line is one half the length of the same line in the real object, it is called a "half-size" drawing, and is said to be drawn on a scale of 6" to the foot. If "one fourth size," the scale is 3" to the foot. The scale is often expressed as an equation, viz.: 2 in. = 1 ft., or 1/4" = 1'.

If the drawing is not made with accuracy, it is necessary to put the dimensions upon it, and this is often done for convenience and quickness of execution in the case of drawings which are accurate.

Details inside of an object, that is, such parts as cannot be seen or properly shown in the elevations or plan, are often shown by dotted lines, as in Fig. 597. Sometimes dotted lines are used in the same way to show the back of an object, to save making extra drawings. Too many dotted lines, however, are confusing, so if the parts that do not show on the surface are not quite simple and cannot be clearly shown by dotted lines on the plan and elevations, it is usual to make another kind of drawing especially to show such details. This is called a "section" (Lat., _sectio_, from _secare_, to cut), and represents what would be shown if the object were cut apart or sawed through at the place where the view of the details is wanted. The surface supposed to be cut is usually indicated by parallel lines crossing the surface, independent parts, as those of different pieces, frequently being shown by changing the direction of the parallel lines, as in Fig. 504.

When both sides of an object are alike, labour and space are often saved by making a drawing of one side or one half only, from a centre line. The same way is sometimes adopted in making sections, and an elevation and section can sometimes be combined in this way in one drawing.

As soon as you become used to plans and elevations, you can by combining the plan and elevations in your mind quickly imagine the form of the object represented, and often, unless it is complicated, get fully as good a conception of it as from a picture, and a more accurate knowledge of its proportions and details, so that in many cases there is no need of having a picture at all in order to construct the object. It is often a convenience to have a picture, however, and frequently an assistance in forming a correct idea of something you have never seen. Where the appearance of the object is of consequence, as in the case of a house or bookcase, for instance, the picture is of the first consequence, for you must have a correct representation of the general appearance of the object before you begin to make the working-drawings. You will soon find that merely having an idea in your mind is not always sufficient from which to make working-drawings, although the first step in the process. You will often find that when the idea in your mind is put into the form of a picture, it does not look at all as you thought it would, and that if you had started at once on the working-drawings without first making a sketch or picture, the result would have been unsatisfactory and sometimes entirely impracticable.

Even making a sketch or picture that just expresses your idea will not always result in the completed object being just what you wish. Strange though it may seem, it is a fact, practically, that the completed object often looks quite different from what the sketch leads you to expect. That result, however, is something which cannot be helped, so you need not give it any attention, only do not be surprised if once in a while you find that what you have made is not just what you thought it would be. First make the best design you can, then accurate working-drawings, then work carefully by the drawings, and if the result is not always exactly what you expected, you can console yourself with the thought that your experience is only that of architects, designers, carpenters, and workmen in all lines, and that no one can foresee _all_ the conditions by which a piece of projected work will be affected.

Oblique or parallel projections are often used, from which measurements can be made. Such projections are not true representations of the objects as they appear to the eye, but they are often used because readily understood and easily drawn. They often answer every purpose from a practical point of view. Figs. 120 and 344 are examples.

Another way of representing objects for practical purposes is that shown in Figs. 121 and 407, and known as "isometric[54] projection" or "isometric perspective." This method is incorrect so far as giving an accurate picture is concerned, for the object is always represented as being too large in the farther parts, because the inclined lines are drawn parallel instead of converging; but it is often very useful from a practical point of view, because by it all that is required can frequently be expressed in one drawing.

Isometric perspective will not readily give the correct dimensions except in the lines which are vertical or which slant either way at an angle of 30° with the horizontal,--_i.e._, you cannot take the other dimensions right off with a rule as from a plan, and therefore, so far as obtaining correct dimensions is concerned, it is practically not useful for other than rectangular objects; but so far as merely showing the general shape or conveying the idea of the form it can often be advantageously used in representing many objects containing curved lines. Isometric projection has the advantage of being easy of execution, and of being so pictorial that it is almost always easy to see what is meant.

=A First-Class Bench.=--The construction of the bench shown on page 101 is not difficult to understand, but considerable skill is required to make a really good one. The arrangement of the vise is shown in Fig. 705, which is an inverted view (as if looking up from underneath). The vise is kept parallel by the stout bars of hard wood, parallel to the screw, which slide through mortises cut in the front of the bench-top, and are further guided by the cleats screwed to the under side of the top, where it is thinner than at the front edge. In case of using such a vise where the bench-top is not so thick in front, the thickness can easily be made sufficient by screwing a stout cleat on the under side where the vise comes. In this cleat can be cut the mortises for the slide-bars. The end-vise or "tail-screw" shown in Fig. 143 involves rather more work, but slides upon a similar principle. Perhaps the best way for the amateur is to make the end-vise in the same way as the main vise, adding the movable stop.

There is no better way to make the front of this bench-top than to build it up of narrow boards on edge, planed true, and thoroughly glued and bolted together. The planing and truing can best be done by machine, however. If well put together, such a bench-top will defy changes of weather and will stand a great deal of hard usage. The back part of the top can be thinner, but can very well be built up if desired. An excellent way to fasten the frame of such a bench together is with bolts, by which the parts can be drawn to a firm bearing.

It is impossible to make such a bench too rigid. If so stiffly framed that it cannot change its shape, and if the top is carefully trued, you will have something which will be a great help to good work.

FOOTNOTES:

[51] In elm, ash, and hickory the sapwood is sometimes considered better than the heart.

[52] The term deal, though often loosely applied to the wood of the pine and fir, properly refers to planks of these woods cut more than 7" wide and 6' long--usually 3" thick and 9" wide. The term is common in Great Britain but not in the United States.

[53] This definition of elevations and plan as being representations of what you would see if you stood opposite the sides or above the top of the object, is merely a rough explanation of the general meaning of the terms. As a matter of scientific accuracy the elevation is, strictly speaking, not the way the side would appear if you looked at it from one position, but the way it would appear if you could look at it from directly opposite every point of it--as if you could have an infinite number of eyes, one being opposite every point of the object. The elevation shows the front or side or end as it really is, not as it looks, either in the form of an exact copy if the object is small, or of a small copy made in the same proportion if the object is too large to be represented full size.

[54] Gr., equal measure.

INDEX

Adze, Indian, 11

-- Japanese, 15

Air-chambers, 318, 319 (footnote)

-- dried stock, 164. See _Seasoning_.

-- drying, 36-40, 522-524

-- pure, 277-279

-- tanks, 318, 319 (footnote)

Alkanet root, 498

Ammonia (for staining), 495, 497

Angle-blocks. See _Corner-blocks_, 365

Angles, determining, with bevel, 350

Angular bit-brace, 352

Animals, houses for, 126-140

Annual rings, 29

Anvil, 77, 344

Apparatus, athletic and gymnastic. See _Gymnastic Apparatus_ and _Implements for Outdoor Sports_.

Apple (wood), 512

Apron, 56

Arbours, 291-293

Arcs, describing circular, 364, 365

Arkansas stone, 434

Ash, 512

-- sapwood, 42, 510

Auger-bit, 352

Awl, Japanese, 15

Awls, 344, 345

Axe, 345

Backbone, ice-boat, 334

Back-saw, 469

Backs for case work, 194

Balcony, 295, 297

Ball and block, 219

Balloon frame, 280

Bar, horizontal, 166-168, 173

Bars, parallel, 164-166

Bassoolah, 11, 12

Basswood, 512

Bath-house, 293, 294

Batteau, 299-314

Battening, 282

Bayberry tallow, 378

Baywood. See _Mahogany_.

Beading, 198, 345, 346

-- -planes, 451

Bead-scraper, 345, 346

Beams. See _Collar-beams_, _beams_, etc.

Beech, 512

Bench, filing-, 75-77

-- finishing-, 77

-- hook, 86-88

-- stop, 71-75

-- top, 62, 63, 74, 536

-- vise, 65-71, 74, 101, 536

-- work-, 57-65, 101, 536, 537

Bending wood, 40, 346-349

Bevel, 349, 350

Bevelling, 350, 351, 357 -- edges of sides of boat, 305

Big trees, 520

Birch, 512, 513 -- model (canoe), 325, 326

Bird-houses. See _Houses for animals_.

Bird's-eye maple, 517

Bit-brace, 351, 352

-- angular, 352

-- maker, 22

-- use of, 353-356 (_Boring_)

-- where to keep, 83

Bits, 352, 353

-- arrangement, 83

-- maker, 22

Bit-stock. See _Bit-brace_.

Black birch, 512, 513

-- bone-, 498

-- cherry, 514

-- ivory-, 498

Black, lamp-, 498

-- walnut, 513

Blind dovetailing, 373

-- nailing, 432

Block-form, 176, 240

-- -plane, 449

Board, sprung, for pressure, 362

-- -measure, 47, 48

Boarding, outside, 269

Boards, definition of, 46

-- matched-, 46, 47

-- or planks, laying exposed, 353

-- splitting, 527-529

Boat-building, 298-343

-- house-, 339-343

-- -houses, 294-297

-- ice-, 332-339

Boats, toy, hulls of, 227-237

-- (windmill), 114, 115

Bob-sled, 156-163

Body plan, 229, 230 (footnote)

Boiled oil, 437 (_Painting_)

Bone-black, 498

Bookcase and lounge, 211

-- dwarf, 196

-- low, 196

-- pinned ("knock-down"), 195

-- wall, or hanging, 186, 187

-- with cupboard, 197

-- with desk, 198-200

Bookcases, 193-200

Book-rack, 183, 184

-- -shelf, hanging, 185

Booths, play, 241-249

Boring, 353-356

-- Japanese, 15

Bow-gun, 154

-- -saw, 469, 470

Boxes, 219, 227

Box-making, 219-227

Boxwood, 513

Brace for bits. See _Bit-brace_.

-- -joint, 411

Braced frame, 280

Braces, corner, for house frames, 266

Brad-awl, 344, 345

-- holes made by, 430

Brake for sleds, 160-163

British oak, 518

Broad-leaved trees, 511

Bruises and cuts, 86

Bruises in wood, to take out, 356

Brushes, 356

-- care of, 440

Buck. See _Vaulting-horse_.

"Built-up" stock, 409, 410, 530, 531

Bull-nosed-plane, 450

Burnisher for scraper, 487

Butternut, 513

Butt-joint, 408

Buttonwood. See _Sycamore_.

Buying lumber, suggestions about, 36-45. See also _Seasoning_.

-- tools, suggestions about, 15-22

Cabinet-clamps. See _Clamps_.

-- corner-, 190, 191

-- for guns, fishing-rods, etc., 215, 216

-- for tools and supplies, 96-101

-- medicine, 191, 193

-- music, 200, 201

-- wall, or hanging, 186, 189, 190

-- -work. See _Furniture_.

Cabins, 241-259

Cages for animals, 126-140

Calcined plaster, 403

Calipers, 356

Camping-houses. See _House-building for Beginners_.

Canoe, "birch" model, 325, 326

-- canvas-covered, 317-328

-- flat-bottomed, 311-317

-- " " (canvas-covered), 313, 314

Canvas-covered canoe (flat-bottomed), 313, 314

-- canoes, 317-328

Canvas, covering canoe with, 322, 323

-- deck, 317

-- painting, 323

Cap (plane-iron), 451, 452

Care of stock, 44

-- of tools, 22, 23

Carlins, 325, 329

Carpentry, Japanese, 12-15

Carving-tools, 20, 357

-- makers of, 22

Case, centre-board, 330, 331

-- music, 200, 201

Casing for doors, 269

-- for doors and windows, 272

Catalpa, 522

Caulking, 302, 303, 330

Cedar, 513, 514

Centre-bit, 352

-- -board, 330, 331

-- -board trunk, 330, 331

-- -table, 206, 207

Chain, wooden, 218, 219

Chair, outdoor, 210

-- -table, 212-214

Chalk, 416

-- -line, 416

Chamfering, 350, 351, 357

Charring wood, 263, 264, 525

Checking of lumber, 31, 42, 526

Cherry, 514

Chestnut, 514

Chests, 219-227

Chimney. See _Smoke-pipe_.

Chip (of plane), 453

Chisels, 357-359

-- arrangement of, 83

-- makers of, 22

-- sharpening. See _Sharpening_.

-- use of, 358, 359, 421-423, 442-444

Chopping-block, 86

-- wood. See _Splitting Wood_.

Circles and arcs, describing, 364, 365

Circular-plane, 450

Clamping, 71, 359-363 (_Clamps_), 395, 461

Clamps, 71, 359-363, 395, 461. See also _Hand-screws_.

Clapboarding, 273, 274

Clapboards, 48, 274

Cleaner for furniture, etc., 386

Cleating, 53, 363, 364

Cleats. See _Cleating_.

-- for rowlocks, 301, 302, 306

Clinching nails, 431

Club-house, 296, 297

Coal-tar, 525

Coaming, 316, 320, 325, 331

Collar-beams, 287

Collection of specimens of wood, 44, 507, 508

Colour of lumber, 40

"Combination" articles (furniture), 198-200, 211-214

"Combination" planes, 451

Compartments (pigeon-holes), 200

-- water-tight, 318, 319 (footnote)

Compasses, 364, 365. See also _Scribing_.

Compass-plane. See _Circular-plane_.

-- -saw, 469, 470

Concealed nailing. See _Blind-_ and _Sliver-nailing_, 432

Conifers, 511

Coop, 129

Cord, twisted, for pressure, 362

Corner-blocks, 365

-- book-shelves and seat, 212

-- -braces for house frame, 266

-- -chisel, 358

-- -posts, 265, 266

-- -seat and shelves, 212

-- -shelves or cabinets, 190, 191

"Cottage Row," 271-276

Cottages, simple summer, 271-290

Cottonwood, 514

Couch with bookcase, etc., 211

Countersink, 365, 478

Cracking of lumber, 31, 42, 526

Cracks and holes, to fill, 384, 403, 404

-- flashing, 273

Creosote, 525

-- -stains, 270, 525

Cricket, or footstool, 210

Crooked grain, 529, 530

Crossbow, 154

Cross-cutting-saw, 466, 467

-- -grained stock, 40, 41, 529, 530

Cupboard. See _Cabinet_.

Cup-shakes, 531

Curling of lumber, 32-34, 409, 410, 502, 526-531

Curves, sawing, 180

-- trimming or paring, 443

Cut-nails, 433

-- best for shingling, 270

Cuts and bruises, 86

Cutting the log, 31-35

-- the tree. See _Felling_.

Cutting-edges, 25-28. See also _Sharpening_.

-- -pliers, 366

Cutwater, 309-311

Cypress, 514, 515

Daggers, wooden, 106, 107

Deal, 519, 521

Decay and preservation, 41, 524-526

Deck, 329

-- canvas, 317

-- for toy boats, 236

-- timbers, 325, 329

Deliquescent stem, 508

Designing, 175-177, 239-241, 276, 534, 535

Desk and bookcase, 198-200

-- -rack, 184, 185

Dimension stock, 45

Dividers. See _Compasses_.

Dog-fish skin, 381

Dog-houses, 133-136

Dogwood, 522

Dolls' house, 121-125

Door, 247

-- and window frames, space for, 266

-- -casings, 269, 272

Doors and panels, 366-372

-- and windows, sizes of, 276

-- sliding, 132, 133

Double-bladed paddle, 328

-- -ironed planes, 451

-- -runner, 156-163

Dovetailing, 372, 373

Dowelling, 374-376

Dowel-plate, 376

Dowels, 374

Dragon's blood, 498

Drainage, 278, 279

Drawboring, 426

Drawer, or lap, dovetailing, 373

Drawers, 101, 376-378

Drawing nails, 504, 505

Drawings, working, 49, 50, 532-536

Draw-knife or draw-shave, 378, 379

-- use of, 442-444

Draw-stroke, 26-28, 351, 378, 379, 443, 444, 456

Drill, primitive, 10

-- -stock, 379

Drills, 379

Driving nails. See _Nailing_.

Dry rot, 526

-- situation, 277

Dryer, 438 (_Painting_)

Drying lumber, methods of, 36-40, 523, 524

Duck's-bill-bit, 353

Dwarf bookcase, 196

Ebony, 48, 515

Edges, cutting, 25-28. See also _Sharpening_.

Elasticity, 40, 511

-- loss of, 37, 524

Elder, 522

Elevations, 532-534

Elm, 515

-- sapwood, 42, 510

End-grain, 529

-- planing, 457

Essentials to successful work, 102

Estimating, 54, 55

Excurrent trunk, 508

Expansion and contraction, 30-33, 50-53, 225, 526-531

-- bit, 352

Face (of plane), 445

-- (of stock), 54

Facing edges of case work, 198

Farm school, 271

Felling and seasoning, 522-524. See also _Seasoning_.

Figured stock. See _Grain of Wood_.

File-card, 381

Files, 379-381

-- maker of, 22

Filing, 379-381

-- -bench, 75-77

-- saw-, 485-487 (_Sharpening_)

Filler, wood, 385 (_Finishing_)

Finishing, 182, 183, 381-386

-- -bench, 77

Fin-keel type, 229-236

Fir. See _Pine_ and _Spruce_.

Firmer-chisel, 357, 359

Fishing-lodges. See _House-building for Beginners_.

Fish-plates, 411

Flashing, 257, 258, 272, 273

Flatboat, 299-308

Flat-bottomed boats, 299-317

Floor-beams, 254, 255, 266, 267, 287, 288, 296

Flooring for canoe, 323

-- rift-, 36

Floors, 254, 255, 266-268, 287, 288, 296

Flower-pot stands, 201, 202, 207

Footstool or cricket, 210

Fore-plane, 447, 448

Forests, preservation of, 509

Forms for bending. See _Moulds_.

Foundation, 259, 260, 262-264, 279

Frame for buildings, 249, 250, 254, 265-269, 272, 279, 280, 286, 287, 296. See also _Houses for Animals_.

-- balloon, 280

-- braced and mortised, 280

-- for boat. See _Moulds_ and _Boat-building for Beginners_.

Frames, door and window, sizes of, 276; spaces for, 266

-- picture-, 216, 217

Framing-chisels, 358

Framing (doors and panels). See _Doors and Panels_.

-- (house). See _Frame for Buildings_.

-- -square, 495

French polishing, 385, 386

Frogs, turtles, lizards, etc., tank for, 139, 140

Front elevation, 532

Fungi, 41, 43, and _Decay and Preservation_, 524-526

Furniture, 175-217

-- repairing, 460-462

Gain, 288 (Fig. 399)

Gauge, 386-390

-- for bevels and chamfers, 351

-- makers, 22

Gauging. See _Gauge_.

Georgia pine, 520

Giant swing, 172, 173

Gimlet, 390

-- -bit, 353

Glass for scraper, 473, 474

-- setting, 391

Glazing, 391

Glue. See _Gluing_.

Glued-joints, 360 (footnote), 392, 393 (footnote). See also _Gluing_, _Clamps_, _Hand-screws_, and _Repairing Furniture_.

-- clamping, 359-363

-- rubbing, 365 (_Corner-blocks_)

Glue-pot, 396

Gluing, 391-396. See also _Clamps_, _Hand-screws_, and _Repairing Furniture_.

-- old work. See _Repairing Furniture_.

Glycerine, 434

Gouge, 396-398

-- -bit, 353

Gouges, arrangement of, 83

-- makers of, 22

Grain of wood, 30, 33-36, 40

-- crooked or cross-grained, 35, 36, 40, 529, 530

Grinding. See _Sharpening_.

Grindstone, 398

-- use of, 480-482

Grooving, 185, 187, 398

Gum (wood), 522

Gun-cabinet, etc., 215, 216

Guns and pistols (wooden), 152-154

Gunwale strip, 306, 317, 320

Gymnastic apparatus, 163-174

Half-breadth plan, 229, 230

Half-round file, 380

Halving (halved-joints), 399, 400

Hammer, 400

-- use of. See _Nailing_, 428-430, and also 504, 505

Handles, etc., oiling, 23

Hand-screws, 400-402

-- use of, 71, 400-402, 461

Hanging bookcase, 186, 187

-- book-shelf, 185

"Happy Jack," 112-114

Hard pine, 519, 520

-- wood, 45

Hatchet, 402

-- use of, 441, 442

Headledges, 330, 331

Heart, crooked, 529, 530

-- shakes, 531

-- wood, 29, 42, 43, 510

Hemlock, 515

Hen-houses. See _Houses for Animals_ and _House-building for Beginners_.

Hickory, 515

-- sapwood, 510

Hinges, 247, 402, 403

Hip-rafters, 284

Hip-roof, 284-286

Holes and cracks, to fill, 384, 403, 404

Hollow and round planes, 451

Holly, 516

Horizontal bar, 166-168, 173

Hornbeam, 522

Horse, vaulting-, 170-172

Horses, or trestles, 88-90

House, bath-, 293, 294

-- -boats, 339-343

-- -building for beginners, 238-297

-- designing, 239-241

-- situation, 239. See also _Houses_.

Housed joint, 424 and Fig. 557

Houses, boat-, 294-297

-- club-, 296, 297

-- dolls', 121-125

-- for animals, 126-140

-- play-, 241-259

-- portable, 247, 248

-- summer-, 291-293. See also _House_.

Housing (housed joint). 424 and Fig. 557

Hunting-lodges. See _House-building for Beginners_.

Hutch, rabbit, 132, 133

Ice-boat, small, 332-339

Indian turning, 10, 11

Inside calipers, 356

Iron (of plane), 445

-- painting, 438

Ironwood, 522

Isometric projection or perspective, 535

Ivory black, 498

Jack-knife. See _Knife_, 411, 412

-- -plane, 446, 447

-- -rafter, 284

Japan, 438 (_Painting_)

-- varnish, 438

Japanese carpenter's vise, 13

-- carpentry, 12-15

-- lacquer, 383 (footnote)

-- tools, 14, 15

Jointer, 448

Jointing, 360 (footnote), 404-408, 491 (_Shooting-board_)

Joints, 221, 222

Joints and splices, 408-411

-- for gluing, 360, 392, 393 (footnote). See _Glued-joints_.

-- housed, 424 and Fig. 557

-- in exposed work, painting, 439, 440

-- mitred. See _Mitring_.

-- relished, 425

Joists, definition, 47

Keel, 316, 323, 324, 327

-- built up, 237

-- (skag), 307

Keelson, 320

Kennel, 133-136

Kerfing. See _Bending Wood_, 346

Keyhole-saw, 470

Kiln-drying, 37-40. See _Seasoning_.

King-bolt, 158

Knees, 314

Knife, 411, 412

-- makers, 22

-- putty, 459

-- sharpening, 480, 484

-- use of, 442-444

Knives, wooden, 106, 107

"Knock-down" construction, 195

Lacquer, Japanese, 383 (footnote)

Ladders (gymnastic), 173

Lampblack, 498

Lancewood, 516

Lap or drawer dovetailing, 373

Lard oil, 434

Lathe, primitive Indian, 10, 11

Laths, 48

Lattice-work, 282, 291, 292

Laying out the work, 50-54

Lead (of plane-iron), 452

-- over door- and window-casings, 272, 273

-- red, 438 (_Painting_)

-- white. See _Painting_.

Lean-to, 241-250

-- addition, 281, 282

-- roof, frame for, 250

Ledger-board, 296

Leg-of-mutton sail, 332

Leopard wood, 48

Level, 96, 412

-- makers, 22

Levelling tables, horses, chairs, etc., 479, 480, 504

Lighthouse, 120

Lignum-vitæ, 516

Lime-water, 497, 498

Linden. See _Basswood_.

Linseed oil. See _Finishing_, _Painting_ (437), and _Staining_.

Lizards, frogs, turtles, etc., tank for, 139, 140

Live oak, 518

Load water-line, 230 (footnote)

Location of house, 277-279

Locks, 412, 413

Locust, 516

Log, cutting the, 31-35

Long jointer, 448

Lounge with bookcase, etc., 211

Lumber, characteristics. See Chapter III. (_Wood_), and 510-522

-- charring, 263, 264, 525

-- checking and cracking, 31, 42, 526

-- colour of, 40

-- cross-grained, 40, 41, 529, 530

-- curling and warping, 32-34, 41, 409, 502, 526-531

-- definition, 45

-- dressed, 45, 46

-- rift, 35, 36

-- sawing, 31-35. See also _Expansion and Contraction_.

-- seasoning, 36-40, 42, 164, 177, 178, 522-524

-- selection of, 33-45

-- stacking, 39

-- swelling and shrinking, 30-35, 50-53, 225, 526-531

-- undressed, 45

-- wany, 40

-- warped, 41. See _Warping_.

-- winding, 41. See _Winding_.

M, 47

Mahogany, 516

-- cracks in, 42

Mallet, 414

Maple, 517

Marking, 414-416

-- -awl. See _Awl_ and _Marking_.

-- distances. See _Rule_, 465

-- -gauge. See _Gauge_.

Mason's square, 261

Masts, 331

Matched-boards, 46, 47

-- striking, 245

Matching-planes, 21, 47, 451

Maxims, 102

Measurements. See _Rule_, and also 47, 48, 50, 59, 167(footnote), 244, 261

Measuring. See _Measurements_.

Measuring-rod, 53

Medicine-cabinet, 191, 193

Medullary rays, 29, 30

Middle-boards, 34, 35, 523

Mirror-plates, 416

Mirrors, setting, 391

Mitre. See _Mitring_.

-- -board, 92, 93

-- -box, 90-92

-- dovetailing, 373

-- shooting-board, 94

-- -square, 349

Mitring, 221, 417-419

Models, 240

Mortise and tenon. See _Mortising_.

Mortise-chisels, 358

-- -gauge, 387

-- open, 400

Mortised frame, 280

Mortising, 419-428

Mouldings, 48, 197, 198 (footnote)

Moulds (for bending), 348, 349

-- (for boat), 304, 307, 309, 310, 315, 316, 319, 320

Mouth (of plane), 445, 452, 453

Music-case, 200, 201

Nailing, 428-433

Nails, 433

-- copper and galvanised, 300

-- for shingling, 270

-- how to keep, 85

-- use of, 430-433 (_Nailing_)

-- withdrawing, 504, 505

Nail-set, 433, 434

Needle-leaved trees, 511

Nippers, 434, 445

Norway pine, 519

-- spruce, 521

Notch-boards, 289

Oak, 517, 518

Oak, quartered, 34

Oblique projections, 535

Odd-jobs, 434

Oil, 434

-- -finish, 381

-- linseed, See _Finishing_, _Painting_, and _Staining_.

Oiling handles, etc., 23

Oil-stone, 434, 435

-- box for, 85

-- use of, See _Sharpening_.

Open mortise and tenon, 400

Operations, some every-day, 344-505

Outdoor seat, 210

Outside calipers, 356

Overshot water-wheels, 117, 118

Packing-cases, 225

Paddles, 327, 328

Paint, See _Painting_.

Painting, 435-441

-- canvas, 323

-- shingles, 270

Panels, 366-372 (_Doors and Panels_)

Panel-saw, 466

Parallel bars, 164-166

-- projection, 535

Paring, 441-444

-- -chisel, See _Chisel_ 357, 358

Parting tool, See _Carving Tools_.

Patterns for bending, See _Moulds_.

Pear (wood), 518

Pencil, See _Marking_, 414

Perspective, isometric, 535

Piazza, 283, 287-289

Picture-frames, 216, 217

Pigeon-holes, 200

-- -houses. See _Houses for Animals_.

Piers, 259, 260, 279

Piles, 524

Pincers, 445

Pine, 518-520

Pinning mortise and tenon, 425

Pins for mortise and tenon, 426

Pipe-rack, 188, 189

Pistols and guns (wooden), 152-154

Pitch, 525

-- pine, 520

Pith, crooked, 529, 530

Plan, 532-534

-- (boat), 229, 230

Plane, 445-458

-- how to hold, 446, 447

-- -iron, adjusting, 453, 454

-- sharpening, See _Sharpening_.

-- wooden jack- or fore-, holding, 446 See _Planes_.

Planer-marks, 458

Planes, Japanese, 13, 14

-- makers, 22

-- where to keep, 82

-- wooden, oiling, 23. See _Plane_.

Planing down stock, 44

Planks, definition, 47

-- laying, See _Boards, laying_.

-- splitting, See _Boards, splitting_.

Plans, See _Working Drawings_.

Plant-stands, 201, 202, 207

Plaster of Paris, 403

Plates, 266

Play-houses, -booths, or -stores, 241-259

-- "Cottage Row," 271, 276

-- -village, 118-121, 271, 276

Pliers, 445

-- cutting-, 366

Plough, 21, 451. See _Plane_.

Plum (wood), 520

Plumb, 96, 458

Pod-bit, 353

Pole, sprung, for pressure, 362

-- for skis, 148

Poles (for gymnastics), 173

Polishing, 385, 386

Poplar, 522

Posts, corner-, 265, 266

-- foundation, 262-264

-- setting, 262, 263

Potash, bichromate of, 498

Poultry-houses, See _House-building for Beginners_ and _Houses for Animals_.

Preservation of wood, decay and, 524-526

-- of forests, 509

Pressure, means of applying, See _Clamps_ and _Hand-screws_.

Projections, oblique or parallel, and isometric, 535

Proportions of structures, 176, 240

Punch (for nails), See _Nail-set_, 433, 434

Punts and scows, 299-308

Purlins, 268

Putty, 459

-- -knife, 459

-- use of, 403, 439

Quartered oak, 34, 179

Queen-bolts, 159

Quill-bit, 353

Rabbet, 185, 187, 459

-- -hutch, 132, 133

-- -plane. See _Plane_ 450, 451

Rack, for books, 183, 184

-- for pipes, 188, 189

-- for table or desk, 184, 185

-- for tools, 83, 84

Rafters, 282

-- arrangement of, 287

-- hip-, 284

-- jack-, 284

-- laying out, 268

Rails (of door or panel work), 370

-- (of table), 204

Rasp, 460

Rasping. See _Filing_.

Ratchet-brace, 351

Ratchets (for shelves), 489

Rat-tailed file, 380

Raw oil. See _Painting_, 437

Rays, medullary, 29, 30

Reamers, 353

Rear elevation, 532

Red cedar, 514

-- deal, 519

-- fir, 519

-- lead, 438 (_Painting_)

-- oak, 518

-- pine, Canadian, 519

Redwood, 520

Relishing (relished joint), 425

Repairing furniture, 460-462

Ribbands, 320

Ribs, 314, 321, 324, 325

-- bending. See _Bending Wood_.

Ridge-board, 268

Rift-flooring, 36

-- stock, 35, 36

Rings, annual, 29

-- swinging (gymnastic), 173

Ripping-saw, 468, 469 (_Saw_)

Risers, 289

Rivets, 462

Rock elm, 515

-- maple, 517

Rod, measuring, 53

Roof-boards, 268

-- -timbers, 268

-- durability of, 525

Roofing-paper, 246, 258

Roofs, 128, 268-270

-- for house-boat, 341, 342

-- hip-, 284-286

-- lean-to, shed, or single-pitched, 241, 250

-- overhang of, 282

Rope twisted for pressure, 362

Rosewood, 520

Rot, wet and dry, 526

Rounding sticks, 462-465

-- form for, 95, 96

Router, See _Plane_, 451

Rowboat, small, 308-311

Rowboats, 299-317

Rowlocks, 302, 306, 313

Rubbing down, 384

Rule, 465

-- makers, 22

Ruler, marking by, 415

Runner-board, ice-boat, 334

Runners, ice-boat, 335-338

Running foot, 48, 244

Runway for animals, 128, 276

Rust, preventing, 23

Rustic summer houses and arbours, 292, 293

Saddle-boards, 269

Sail-boat, small, 311, 328-332

Sail, leg-of-mutton, 332

-- sprit-, 332

San Domingo mahogany, 517

Sandpaper, 465, 466

-- block, 466

Sandpapering. See _Sandpaper_.

Sanitary precautions, 277-279

Sap, 30

Sapwood, 29, 42, 43, 510

Sassafras, 522

Satinwood, 521

Saw, 466-473

-- -filing, 485-487 (_Sharpening_)

Saw-set, 473

Sawing. See _Saw_.

-- curves, 180

-- joints to fit, 410

-- log, ways of, 30-35

-- lumber, 31-35

Saws, Japanese, 14, 15

-- makers, 22

-- where to keep, 82

Scale (for drawings), 533

Scarfing, bevelled, or splaying, 410, 411

Schedule of materials, 55

Scoring with cuts. See _Paring_.

Scotch fir, 519

-- pine, 519

Scows and punts, 299-308

Scrap-boxes, 85

Scraper, 473, 474

-- for beading, 345, 346

-- Japanese, 13, 14

-- sharpening, 487, 488 (_Sharpening_)

-- where to keep, 85

Scraping. See _Scraper_.

Scratch-awl, 345 (_Awl_)

Screw-drivers, 475, 476

-- for bit-brace, 476

-- long and short, 476

Screws, and their use, 476-479

-- how to keep, 85

Scriber. See _Marking_, 414

Scribing. See _Marking_, 414-416 and 479, 480

Seams of boat. See _Caulking_.

Seasoned stock, 164, 177, 178

-- tests for, 39, 40. See _Seasoning lumber_.

Seasoning lumber, 36-40, 42, 164, 177, 178, 522-524

Seat for corner, with shelves, 212

-- outdoor, 210

Second story, framing at, 296, 297

Secret dovetailing, 373

-- nailing. See _Blind-_ and _Sliver-nailing_, 432

Section, 533, 534

See-saw, tilt or, 142-145

_Sequoia_, 520

Set (for nails), 433, 434

-- (of saw), 467

Setting glass, 391

Setting mirrors, 391

-- nails, 433, 434

-- posts, 262, 263

-- saws. See _Sharpening_.

Settle, corner, with shelves, 212

-- with table, 212-214

Sewerage, 278, 279

Shacks, 241-259

Shagbark (hickory), 515

Shakes, 531

Sharpening tools, 16, 22, 23, 25, 480-488

Sharpie (sail-boat), 328-332

Shave. See _Draw-knife_ and _Spokeshave_.

Sheathing, 46, 47, 245, 269

-- for canvas canoe, 325, 326

-- outside of house with paper, 273

-- -paper, 246

-- striking, 245

Shed-roof. See _Lean-to_.

Sheer plan, 229, 230

Shelf for books, hanging, 185

Shellac. See _Finishing_.

Shell-bit, 353 (_Bits_)

Shelves, corner, 190, 191

-- ends of, 195

-- for pipes, etc., 188, 189

-- for wall, 187-189

-- movable, 489

-- or pigeon-holes, 200

Shingles, 48, 269

Shingling, 269, 270

-- hips, 285, 286

Shooting-board, 93, 94

-- use of, 490, 491

Shrinkage, 30-35

-- effects of swelling and shrinking, 526-531. See _Expansion and Contraction_.

Shutter, 247, 258

Side elevation, 532

-- -plates, 287

Sills, 265

Silver-grain or rays. See _Medullary rays_ and _Quartered oak_.

Single-pitched roof. See _Lean-to_.

Site, selection of, 277-279

Sizing of floor-beams, 267

Skag, 307

Skew-chisel, 357, 358

Skiffs, 308-314

Skis, 145-148

Slab-sided file, 380

Sleds, 155-163

Slips, 435, 484

Sliver nailing, 432

Sloid knife. See _Knife_, 411, 412

-- work-bench, 57

Smoke-pipe, 257-259

Smoking wood, 524

Smoothing, 179, 180, 450, 453, 457, 458. See _Plane_, _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_.

-- -plane, 448, 449

Snake, wooden, 108, 109

Sofa with bookcase, etc., 211

Soft wood, 45

Sole (of plane), 445

Southern pine, 519, 520

Specimens of wood, 44, 507, 508

Sperm oil, 434

Splaying (splice), 410, 411

Splices. See _Joints and Splices_.

Spline, 491

Split stock. See _Rift_.

Splitting stock, 44, 527-529

-- wood, 28, 491

Spokeshave, 491, 492

-- makers, 22

Spoon-bit, 353

Sporting-cabinet, 215, 216

Spring-board, 170

Spritsail, 332

Spruce, 521

Square, 492-495

-- -foot, 47, 244 (note)

-- makers, 22

-- mitre, 349

-- where to keep, 84, 85, and _Frontispiece_

Squaring work, 181

-- with clamps, 360, 361

Squirrel-house, 136-139

Stacking lumber, 39, 44

-- result of careless, 42

Staining, 495-498

-- shingles, 270

Stains, creosote-, 270, 525

Stairs, 289

-- (for little houses), 123

Staking out, 260-262

Stands, for plants, 201, 202, 207

Stands, small, 202, 207-209

Star-shakes, 531

Steam-chest, 347

Steaming wood, 347 (_Bending_)

Steel square, 495

-- -wool, 498, 499

Steering (sleds), 159, 160, 163

Stem-posts, 309, 310, 320-323

Steps, 289

Stern-post, 327. See _Stem-posts_.

"Sticking" lumber. See _Stacking_.

Stile (of door or panel work), 370

Stilts, 141

Stock (of plane), 445

-- "built up," 409, 410, 530, 531

-- care of, 44

-- cross- or crooked-grained, 40, 41, 529, 530

-- planing down, 44

-- splitting, 527-529

-- rift or split, 35, 36. See _Lumber_.

Stop, bench-, 71-75

-- -chamfer, 357

-- for drawers, 378

Stove-pipe. See _Smoke-pipe_.

Stores or houses, play-, 241-259

Straight-bent chisel, 358

Straight-edge, 86, 499

-- marking by, 415

-- to detect warping or winding. See _Winding-sticks_.

Striking circles and arcs, 364, 365

Stringers or strings (stairs), 289

Strop, 85, 499, 500

Stropping, 485

Studding, 266, 287

-- second-story, 296

Sugar maple, 517

-- pine, 519

Summer cottages, simple, 271-290

-- -houses, 291-293

Sunlight, 277, 278

Swelling and shrinking, 30-35, 50-53, 225, 526-531

Swing, giant, 172, 173

Swords, wooden, 106, 107

Sycamore, 521

Table, and settle, or chair, 212-214

-- -top, putting on, 203, 205, 206, 209

Tables, 203-209

Tacks, 500

-- for canvas canoes, 323

Tallow, bayberry, 378

Tamping, 263

Tank, water-, for frogs, etc., 139, 140

Tannic acid, 526

Tape, 500

Tar, coal- and wood-, 525

Teak, 522

Templates, 231

Tennis rackets, 104

Tenon. See _Mortising_.

-- -saw. See _Saw_ (_Back-saw_).

Tenons (in repairing), 462

Thole-pins, 302

Thompson's Island, 271

Three-cornered file. See _File_.

Throat (of plane), 445

Tilt, or see-saw, 142-145

Timber, definition, 45

-- durability of. See _Lumber_.

Toboggan, 148-152

Toe-nailing, 431, 432

Toggle-joint, application of, 267

Tool-cabinets, 96-101

-- -chest, 96, 97, 223, 224

-- -handles, oiling, 23

-- -rack, 83, 84

Tools, 9-28

-- and supplies, arrangement, 80-86, 96

-- cabinet for, 96-101

-- care of, 22, 23

-- common, and their use, 344-505

-- edge-, 25-28

-- Japanese, 14, 15

-- lists of, 18-20

-- makers, 22

-- primitive, 9-15

-- sharpening, 16, 22, 23, 25, 480-488

-- "universal," 18

-- use of, 23-25

Toothed-plane, 449, 450

Toothing, 449, 450

Totlet Town, 118-121

Toughness, 40, 511

Toy boats, hulls of, 227-237

-- village, 118-121

Toys, 106-125

Trapeze, 173

Travelling-cage, 140

Traverse (sled), 156-163

Traversing, 446

Treads, 289

Trees. See _Felling and Seasoning_ and _Preservation of Forests_.

-- big, 520

-- broad-leaved, 511

-- conifers or needle-leaved, 511

Trestles, 88-90

Triangular file, 380

Trigger, 153

Trimming. See _Paring_.

Truing, grindstone, 398

-- oil-stone, 435

-- stock (surfaces), 179, 500, 501

Trunk for centre-board, 330, 331

Trying-plane, 447, 448 (_Plane_)

Try-square. See _Square_ (492).

Tulip wood, 48

Tupelo, 522

Turning, Indian, 10, 11

-- -saw, 469, 470

Turpentine. See _Finishing_ and _Painting_, 437, 438, 498, 526

Turtles, frogs, lizards, etc., tank for, 139, 140

Twist-drill, 501

"Twister" (rope), 362

Twisting. See _Winding_.

Two-foot square, 495

Undercutting, 195, 410

Underpinning, 259, 260, 262-264, 279

Undershot water-wheel, 116, 117

"Universal" planes, 451

-- tools, 18

Varnish. See _Finishing_.

-- Japan, 438

-- -stains, 496

Vaulting apparatus, 169

-- board, 170

-- -horse, 170, 172

Veining-tool. See _Carving-tools_.

Village, play, "Cottage Row," 271-276

-- Totlet Town, 118-121

Vise, bench-, 65-71, 536

-- for metal, 75, 76

Vise, Japanese carpenter's, 13

-- parallelism of jaws, 67, 68

V tool, 357

Wale-strips. See _Gunwale strips_.

Wall-cabinet, 186, 189, 190

-- -shelves, 187-189

Walnut. See _Black Walnut_, 513

Warping of lumber, 32-34, 409, 410, 502, 526-531

Washboard. See _Coaming_.

Washita stone, 434

Water-line, 230 (footnote)

-- pure, 277-279

-- -table, 273

-- -tank for frogs, turtles, etc., 139, 140

-- -tight compartments, 318, 319 (footnote)

-- -wheels, 116-118

Wax finish, 381

Weather-drying, 36, 40. See _Seasoning_.

Weather-vane (steamboat), 115. See _Windmills_.

Wedge for splitting, 28

Wedges, 502, 503

Wedging. See _Wedges_.

-- tenons, 427, 428

Wet rot, 526

Weymouth pine. See _Pine_.

Wheel, steering- (for sled), 160

Whetstone. See _Oil-stone_.

Whetting. See _Sharpening_.

White ash, 512

-- cedar, 514

-- deal, 521

-- lead. See _Painting_.

-- mahogany, 517

-- oak, 518

-- pine, 518, 519

Whitewood, 521

Whittling, 4, 218, 219. See _Knife_.

Willow, 522

Winding, 41, 360, 526-531

-- -sticks, 503, 504

Windmills, 109-116

Window-casings, 272

-- -shutter, 258

-- sliding, 248

Windows and doors, sizes of, 276

Wind-shakes, 531

Wing compasses, 364

Wire-edge, 480

Withdrawing nails, 504, 505

Wood, 29-48 (Chapter III.), 510-522. See _lumber_.

-- charring, 263, 264, 525

-- checking and cracking, 31, 42, 526

-- collection of specimens, 44, 507, 508

-- colour of, 40

-- cross-grained, 40, 41, 529, 530

-- curling and warping, 32-34, 409, 410, 502, 526-531

-- durability of. See _Decay and Preservation_.

-- -filler, 385

-- hard, 45

-- methods of drying, 36-40, 522-524

-- quality of, 33-35, 510, 511, 522

-- seasoning of, 36-40, 42, 164, 177, 178, 522-524

-- selection of, 33-45, 510, 511, 522

-- shrinkage and swelling, 30-35, 50-53, 225, 526-531

-- soft, 45

-- -tar, 525

-- warped, 41. See _Warping_.

-- winding, 41. See _Winding_.

Wooden chain, 218, 219

-- guns and pistols, 152-154

Woods and some of their characteristics, 510-522

Work-bench, 57-65

-- first-class, 101, 536, 537

-- makeshifts, 77-80

-- position and care of, 74, 75

-- sloid, 57

-- top, 74, 536

Working drawings, 49, 50, 532-536

-- edge or surface, 54

Workshop, 56-101, 259-270

Wrench, 505

Wrought nails, 433

Yellow deal, 519 (_Pine_)

-- fir, 519

-- pine, 519

Yew, 522

Zinc, 438 (_Painting_)

The Boy with an Idea Series.

=I. The Young Mechanic.= Practical Carpentry. Containing directions for the use of all kinds of tools, and for the construction of steam-engines and mechanical models, including the art of turning in wood and metal. By the author of "The Lathe and its Uses," etc. Authorized reprint from English edition, with corrections, etc. Illustrated, small 4to, cloth extra

$1 75

"A valuable book, eminently useful to beginners, and suggestive even to the experienced and skilful."--_Albany Journal._

=II. Amongst Machines.= By the author of "The Young Mechanic." Embracing descriptions of the various mechanical appliances used in the manufacture of wood, metal, and other substances. Profusely illustrated. 8vo, cloth

$1 75

"A book of wondrous fascination, written in a clear, bright, pointed style. A volume to be commended above a dozen stories."--_Boston Traveler._

=III. The Boy Engineers.= What they did and how they did it. By the author of "The Young Mechanic." 8vo, with 30 plates, cloth extra

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"An eminently useful and timely book. We heartily commend this volume."--_National Journal of Education._

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=V. Learning to Draw=; or, The Story of a Young Designer. By VIOLLET LE DUC. Translated by VIRGINIA CHAMPLIN. 8vo, with 130 illustrations

$2 00

A work full of practical suggestions, not only for the student of art or of decorative designing, but for students and teachers in other departments. The author's theories of the art of teaching are both original and practical.

G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS, PUBLISHERS, NEW YORK.

Books for the Country

=OUR INSECT FRIENDS AND FOES.= How to Collect, Preserve and Study Them. By BELLE S. CRAGIN. With over 250 illustrations. 8^o, $1.75

Miss Cragin sets forth the pleasure to be derived from a systematic study of the habits of insects, and gives many points which will be of practical value to the beginner. She gives comprehensive descriptions of all the more important species to be found in the United States, together with illustrations of the same.

=AMONG THE MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES.= By JULIA P. BALLARD. Illustrated. 8^o, $1.50.

"The book, which is handsomely illustrated, is designed for young readers, relating some of the most curious facts of natural history in a singularly pleasant and instructive manner."--_N. Y. Tribune_

=BIRD STUDIES.= An account of the Land Birds of Eastern North America. By WILLIAM E. D. SCOTT. With 166 illustrations from original photographs. Quarto, leather back, gilt top, in a box, _net_, $5.00.

"A book of first class importance.... Mr. Scott has been a field naturalist for upwards of thirty years, and few persons have a more intimate acquaintance than he with bird life. His work will take high rank for scientific accuracy and we trust it may prove successful."--_London Speaker._

=WILD FLOWERS OF THE NORTHEASTERN STATES.= Drawn and carefully described from life, without undue use of scientific nomenclature, by ELLEN MILLER and MARGARET C. WHITING. With 308 illustrations the size of life. 8^o, _net_, $3.00.

"Anybody who can read English can use the work and make his identifications, and, in the case of some of the flowers, the drawings alone furnish all that is necessary.... The descriptions are as good of their kind as the drawings are of theirs."--_N. Y. Times._

=THE SHRUBS OF NORTHEASTERN AMERICA.= By CHARLES S. NEWHALL. Fully illustrated. 8^o, $1.75.

"This volume is beautifully printed on beautiful paper, and has a list of 116 illustrations calculated to explain the text. It has a mine of precious information, such as is seldom gathered within the covers of such a volume."--_Baltimore Farmer._

=THE VINES OF NORTHEASTERN AMERICA.= By CHARLES S. NEWHALL. Fully illustrated. 8^o, $1.75.

"The work is that of the true scientist, artistically presented in a popular form to an appreciative class of readers."--_The Churchman._

=THE TREES OF NORTHEASTERN AMERICA.= By CHARLES S. NEWHALL. With illustrations made from tracings of the leaves of the various trees. 8^o, $1.75.

"We believe this is the most complete and handsome volume of its kind, and on account of its completeness and the readiness with which it imparts information that everybody needs and few possess, it is invaluable."--_Binghamton Republican._

G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS, 27 & 29 West 23d St., New York

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Transcriber's Notes

Obvious punctuation and spelling errors and inconsistent hyphenation have been corrected. In ambiguous cases, the text has been left as it appears in the original.

In this text version, italic text is denoted by _underscores_, bold text by =equal signs=, and spaced (gesperrt) text by +plus signs+. Superscripts are represented with the caret character, e.g. 8^o. The word "bassoolah" is written without the diacritical marks used in the original.