CHAPTER X

FURNITURE

Some article of furniture is frequently one of the first objects upon which the beginner (particularly the amateur of mature years) tries his hand; and boys, as well as their elders, sometimes confidently undertake pieces of cabinet-work which would tax to the utmost the skill of an experienced cabinet-maker, only to be discouraged by the unsatisfactory result.

Do not be beguiled by the captivating sketches and descriptions in the popular magazines and papers which tell you how someone, at an expense of perhaps only $2.98, easily made a roomful of desirable furniture out of packing-cases, old bedsteads, barrels, soap-boxes, broomsticks, and the like, with only the household hammer, saw, and screw-driver, and a liberal supply of putty, coloured varnish, and the occasional help of the "village carpenter."

That sort of work does very well for your feminine relatives if they wish to amuse themselves in such ways or to contrive makeshifts to save the expense of furniture made in the usual way. You can very well help them in such work, or do it for them, and some very neat, cheap, and serviceable things can be made of such materials (particularly with the use of cloth)--but that is not the way for _you_ to begin your cabinet-making. Learn to do good, plain, simple, useful work in the simplest, most straightforward, practical, _workmanlike_ way. When you can do that, if you wish to exercise your ingenuity in patching up useful articles from discarded ones you will know how to do it properly.

Be sure to begin with simple articles, avoiding attempts at elaborate decoration. Do not spend your time in making a useless object merely because you think it is pretty. Think first whether your design is suited for the purpose intended. If you start to make a case for your books, select or make your design accordingly, and do not be misled, by the multitude of overelaborated articles with which the market is flooded, into making a parlour bric-à-brac cabinet, all built up of turning, and jig-sawing, and machine-made carvings, too complicated and fragile for practical use, with the result that the books continue to be stored on a closet shelf or on the floor.

Next look to the block-form or general proportions of the object. The importance of this is often wholly overlooked by the average amateur,--sometimes because he is too engrossed in trying to make the details pretty,--but it is essential in making a handsome piece of furniture. No amount of exquisite carving, inlaying, or decoration of any kind (however beautiful in itself) will make an ill-shaped, badly proportioned article a thing of beauty; while a well-shaped and well-proportioned object will be pleasing to the eye even if free from decoration of any kind.

Of course, no rule can be given for designing a handsome piece of furniture any more than for painting a beautiful picture, but when you have sketched out the general shape and proportions and think you have done as well as you can, there is one thing it is well to bear in mind--that the average amateur is much more likely to spoil the appearance of his work by adding too much so-called ornamentation than by leaving the work too plain. When you become proficient enough to add carving, or other form of decoration, to your work, by all means use any skill you may have in such ways, but even then remember not to use such ornamentation too freely. Avoid "gingerbread" work, meaningless jig-sawed decorations, and machine-made carvings, turned out by the gross.

Look at some of your great-grandmother's furniture (if you are fortunate enough to be able to do so) and think how long it has lasted, and compare it with the cheap modern furniture after the latter has been in use for a few years. How much of the latter would be in existence now if it had been made when the ancestral articles were? The durability of the old things is partly due to the quality of the wood and its seasoning. The use of whole pieces (instead of scraps of all kinds of stuff glued up with cheap glue), the way the articles were put together, and the generally honest work put into them had much to do with it.

Bear in mind in undertaking a piece of cabinet-work that you must hold yourself to a higher standard in the matter of accuracy of detail, in order to produce a really satisfactory result, than is necessary for much of the other work often done by amateurs. Many slight inaccuracies, which are of little consequence in the rougher kinds of work, become such gaping and conspicuous defects in cabinet-work as to detract much from the satisfaction that should be taken in home-made articles. Remember, then, that while it is easy to make your furniture strong, it is by no means easy to produce close, accurate joints, smooth, true surfaces, square, clean-cut edges, and a good, smooth finish. Choose, therefore, simple forms, easily put together, for your early attempts; for it is much better to make a modest and unpretentious article well than to make an elaborate one badly.

First and foremost, when you come to the actual work, use thoroughly seasoned wood. This is essential to making permanently satisfactory furniture, as you will learn after you have spent much time in making an article out of half-seasoned stock, only to see the ruin of your carefully executed work begin as soon as the finish is dry, or even before.

Although it is very easy to tell you to use nothing but properly seasoned stock, you will doubtless sometimes be deceived, however, as it is by no means an easy matter for the beginner to determine; but you can at least try your best to get wood in suitable condition, for it will be time well spent. (Read the remarks on seasoning in Chapter III.)

Be content with the more easily worked woods in your early attempts. Do not buy highly figured, heavy, and hard San Domingo mahogany (no matter how beautiful) for your first table or bookcase--nor even quartered oak, nor mottled walnut burl, nor wavy maple--but begin with plain, straight-grained material, easy to work.

White pine is often considered rather cheap and common in appearance, but it is suitable for many things in the way of furniture. It is one of the best woods to "stand," or hold its shape, and if not desired of the natural colour (which, is, however, suitable and attractive for some objects) it can be painted. It can also be stained, but is not to be compared with whitewood in this respect.

Whitewood is, like pine, easy to work, durable, can be obtained in wide boards, can be painted, and takes a stain exceedingly well.

Black walnut is good to work and is well suited for furniture, though its sombre hue is not always desirable.

Cherry, when soft and straight-grained, is easy to work and is often (when highly figured or wavy) one of the most beautiful woods. It is easy to finish.

Mahogany is a wood of great beauty and durability, and holds its shape exceedingly well, but the beginner should confine himself at first to the lighter, softer, straight-grained varieties, which can be easily obtained. You can then try the more highly figured and harder kinds, which will tax your skill in smoothing them.

Oak in its softer, straight-grained forms is well suited to the work of the beginner. It is durable, and an article made of oak will stand more abuse without serious defacement than most of the other woods used for furniture. When quarter-sawed it is more difficult to smooth than plain, straight-grained oak, but as you acquire skill you will find quartered oak one of the most satisfactory woods. Oak can be stained if desired.

Many other kinds of wood are sometimes used, as sycamore, ash, birch, beech, maple, rosewood, butternut, ebony, etc., but these woods you can try for yourself, if you wish, as you progress in skill, and thus learn their peculiar characteristics.

An important point, not always realised by the amateur, is that the stock for good furniture should be planed true, that is, free from winding. Buy stock that is as true as you can find (see Chapter III.) and have it planed to be as true as possible. Have as much of this truing done by machine as you can afford, for it is not worth while to spend an hour in working down a surface by hand (see _Truing Surfaces_, in Part V.) when a machine will do it in five minutes. There are, of course, cases in which this accuracy is not essential,--and judgment must be used, as in all intelligent work,--but, as a rule, it is highly important that the surfaces should be reasonably true if you wish to do your work as it should be done. The pieces, when fitted, should come together easily and naturally, and not require to be sprung or twisted or bent in order to be able to put the article together.

Your furniture should always be hand-planed and scraped, for, though the slight hollows and ridges left by the planing-machine may not be noticeable while the wood is in its natural state, as soon as the surface is finished and begins to have a lustre these inequalities become conspicuous. This applies to any small irregularities of the surface. You cannot get the surface too smooth. You will be surprised at first to see how noticeable slight defects in the surface become in the finished work.

Curved edges occur often in furniture. Many of these curves can be cut with a turning-saw or a keyhole- and compass-saw, but the easiest way (and the most accurate, until you have acquired considerable skill with the saw) is to have them cut at a mill by a jig-saw or band-saw at but slight expense. Have a piece of waste wood put on the under side to prevent the burr, or ragged edge, left by the sawing. These curves can be smoothed with the spoke-shave alone, or spoke-shave and file, or file alone, according to the conditions, as you will soon learn by experience, the final finishing of the surface being given with fine sandpaper.

Put the different parts of your article of furniture completely together once (without glue or nails) to see that everything fits right, that the joints close properly, and that the whole job is as it should be, before putting together permanently.

This often seems to the amateur a needless precaution (and it occasionally is), but, although it takes some time, it is the practice with skilled workmen and therefore a precaution which should not be neglected by the beginner. You will discover the importance of this when you carelessly assume that all the parts of a writing-desk, for instance, will come together properly, or that you can easily correct errors as you go along, only to find, when you have the work nearly put together that something is wrong. In the effort to mend the trouble you will be apt to loosen the parts already fastened, or will have to take the whole apart, which, when glue or nails are used, is particularly discouraging, and apt to damage the quality of the work.

Be particular to clamp the parts of your work together thoroughly when using glue and to allow time enough before removing the clamps (see _Clamps_ and _Gluing_).

Care should be taken in putting your work together to get it "square," that is, to prove the accuracy of the right angles. In some cases this is of course essential to having the work come together at all. In others, the appearance will be much injured if the article tips to one side or is slanting or twisted. In all cases it is essential to the proper closing up of the joints. It will not do to assume, as the beginner often naturally does, that because the parts of the work seem to be accurately made that the whole, when put together, will, therefore, be square. It must be tested. You will be surprised to see how much "out of square" and how winding the result of your most careful work will sometimes be if you do not test it as you put the parts together. In addition to the obvious way of applying the square (see _Square_) to the angles, using the large steel square when you can: there are many cases in which measuring diagonals is a good test, altering the angles of the work until the two opposite diagonals are equal, when the work will, of course, be rectangular. This is a good way for large "case" work, using a stick, or fitting two adjustable sticks, after the manner described on page 167, between the angles, when the latter can be altered until the diagonals are equal.

At the same time that you are testing for squareness you must also look out for winding, by sighting across the front or back, using winding-sticks, if necessary.

When your work has a back fitted in, as in the case of a bookcase or cabinet, this will help you much in the final adjustment.

Do not attempt to put your case work together in an upright position, but upon horses horizontally, or flat upon its back or face.

It is well to use corner-blocks in the angles of your furniture, in places where they will not show (see _Corner-blocks_, in Part V.).

After you begin to acquire some proficiency in your work, a little beading or chamfering can sometimes be used to good advantage, but it is well not to be too lavish with this kind of ornamentation.

Wall-cabinets and other articles to be hung on the wall can be neatly attached to the wall by brass mirror-plates screwed upon the back. These should usually be sunk into the wood so that the back will be smooth.

Your furniture can be finished with oil or wax alone, or with shellac or varnish, as described in Part V. In the case of articles to be hung against wall-paper or where any delicate fabric will be exposed, it is well to avoid finishing with oil alone unless the greatest care is used, for a very slight surplus of oil will quickly soil the paper. For the work of the amateur nothing is better than shellac.

When your work is made of parts which can be readily separated, such parts as are joined without glue or nails, it is best to take the work apart before finishing. Unhinge doors and take off locks, escutcheons, mirror-plates, handles, and the like. Take out removable shelves, backs, and all detachable parts. Finish all these parts separately and then put the work together again. You can finish the separate parts better and more easily, but of course this can only be done with such parts as are readily separable.

In some cases it is desirable to stain your furniture, but as a rule you cannot improve on the natural colouring, which deepens and mellows with age. If you wish mahogany-coloured furniture, use mahogany, or, if you cannot afford that, simply paint or stain some cheaper wood of the desired colour, but do not try to imitate the grain of the mahogany. There are two objections to these attempts at imitation. First, they are not honest; and, in the second place, the deception is usually a failure.

Finally, be simple and honest in all your designing, your construction (which above all things should be strong and durable), and your finishing. Do not put in your room an object which appears at a distance of ten feet to be a mahogany or black walnut centre-table, but which on closer examination turns out to be a pine washstand in disguise.

There are, as you know, hundreds of articles of household utility, other than those here given, which are suitable for the amateur to make, but it is hoped that the suggestions about those which are included in this chapter will be of service in the construction of other objects.

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=Book-Rack.=--A simple rack for books (Fig. 280) can be of any length desired, about six inches wide, and of half-inch +stock+ (or slightly thinner), but the dimensions can be varied according to circumstances.

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Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

Be sure that the bottoms of the ends are accurately cut. The other edges can be rounded if you wish (see _Spokeshave_ and _File_). The hinges should be sunk in the wood, so that they will not injure the books (see _Hinges_).

See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and _Finishing_, in Part V.

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=Desk-Rack.=--An easily made arrangement to put on the back of a table or desk is shown in Fig. 281, and can be made of stock of from 1/2" to 7/8" thickness, according to the size of the rack.

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Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

First make the two boxes (see _Box-making_, page 219), and then the shelf above them. This can be fastened to the tops of the boxes by screws from underneath. The edge can be slightly rounded. The rail or guard at the back and ends of the shelf should be made independently. The back and ends can be joined as shown in Fig. 282, and the whole then fastened to the shelf by screws (see _Boring_ and _Screws_) from underneath before fastening the shelf to the boxes, or it can be dowelled on, as shown in Fig. 282a (see _Dowelling_).

Partitions can be fitted in the boxes, forming pigeon-holes or compartments, if desired. These partitions can be nailed in place or, to be more workmanlike, can be fitted in grooves (see _Grooving_ and _Shelves_).

See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and _Finishing_, in Part V.

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=Hanging Book-Shelf.=--A wall-shelf (Fig. 283) is useful and good practice for the amateur. It should not be made too deep (from front to back). Half-inch stock is heavy enough, if the shelf is not more than two feet long.

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Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

This shelf can be simply put together by nailing, setting the nails carefully (see _Nailing_ and _Nail-set_). Carefully mark lines (using the square) by which to nail the pieces in their proper places. It is not worth while to use glue if the parts are put together in this way. A stronger and more workmanlike way is to groove the lower shelf into the sides and the sides into the upper shelf (see _Grooving_). In this case glue should be used and the work tightly clamped (see _Gluing_ and _Clamps_). It will be much stronger to fit a back between the two shelves and the sides. This should properly be set in a rabbet cut around the space, as shown in Fig. 284 (see _Rabbet_).

See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and _Finishing_, in Part V.

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=Wall-Cabinet.=--An open cabinet or hanging case for books, magazines, or other small articles (Fig. 285) can be of any desired proportions, but should not be very large. Half-inch stock is sufficiently thick.

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Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

This case should have a back. Rabbets should be cut to receive the back, as in the case of the wall-shelf just shown (see _Rabbet_), the top and middle shelves being narrower than the lower shelf by the thickness of the back.

This case can simply be nailed together (see _Nailing_ and _Nail-set_), but it will be better to groove the shelves into the sides (see _Grooving_).

See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and _Finishing_, in Part V.

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=Hanging Bookcase.=--A simple and useful case for the wall (Fig. 286) can be made on much the same principle as the small case just shown. It is well not to make such cases very large, and, unless quite small, stock from 3/4" to 7/8" in thickness will be suitable.

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Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

Instead of a back, strips can be screwed on vertically (Fig. 286), being sunk so as to be flush with the back of the case (Fig. 287).

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See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and _Finishing_, in Part V.

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=Wall-Shelves.=--An easily made arrangement is suggested in Fig. 288. The design can easily be varied if you wish.

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Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

The construction is extremely simple, the shelves being merely screwed on from the back.

Get out the back and the shelves, and smooth them. Mark lines across the face of the former at the places for the shelves, bore holes through the back from the face for the screws (see _Boring_), and countersink the holes on the back (see _Countersink_). Screw the shelves in place (see _Screws_) to see that everything is right, then take apart and finish.

See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and _Finishing_, in Part V.

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=Pipe-Rack.=--A modification of the shelf arrangement just described makes a good rack for pipes and other articles for smoking (Fig. 289).

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Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

This differs from the article just described only in the shape of the shelves, which have openings in the edge for holding pipes. These openings can be made either with a fine saw or by boring holes and cutting in to them from the edge (Fig. 290).

See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and _Finishing_, in Part V.

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=Wall-Shelves.=--A quite simple form is shown in Fig. 291, having a small box with lid. A combination of this form with the design for a pipe-rack can easily be made if desired.

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Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

The construction is plain from the cases already described. The hinges should be sunk in the edge of the lid (see _Hinges_).

See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and _Finishing_, in Part V.

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=Wall-Cabinet.=--The cabinet shown in Fig. 292 should be rather small, for if large it will look clumsy. It can be made of half-inch stock.

Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

The construction is quite similar to the preceding cases.

If you have no board wide enough for the back, two can be joined (see _Jointing_ and _Gluing_).

The cupboard is simply a box without front or back (see _Box-making_, page 219) screwed to the back from behind (see _Boring_ and _Screws_). The shelves at the sides of the cupboard and the bracket underneath it can be screwed from the back and from the inside of the cabinet, as in the preceding cases.

The door (see _Doors_) can be fitted and hung (see _Hinges_) after the whole has been put together.

See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and _Finishing_, in Part V.

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=Corner-Shelves or Cabinets.=--A simple form of hanging corner-shelves is shown in Fig. 293. This can be of any size, of course, but such articles look clumsy if made very large. Half-inch stock is heavy enough unless the case is quite large, when 3/4" or 7/8" thickness can be used.

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Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

One of the sides can be made wider than the other by the thickness of the stock, so as to lap over and secure a tight and strong joint at the back. The top board (with rounding front) can simply be nailed down on the sides (see _Nailing_ and _Nail-set_), or, to be more workmanlike, a rabbet (Fig. 294) can be cut around the edge of the top on the under side into which to fit the sides, which can be screwed in place (see _Rabbet_, _Boring_, _Countersink_, and _Screws_). This rabbet should not come quite to the front edge of the top.

The shelves can be screwed in place from the back (see _Screws_), carefully marking lines with the square, for boring the holes, before putting the case together, and countersinking +the holes+ upon the back.

This case (being fastened by screws) can be taken apart for finishing.

See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and _Finishing_, in Part V.

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A standing cabinet like Fig. 295 can be made in the same manner as the hanging cabinet just shown, but can, of course, be larger. Stock from 3/4" to 7/8" in thickness can be used. The rail at the top can be made and put on as directed for the desk-rack shown in Figs. 281 and 282.

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=Medicine-Cabinet.=--Any small cabinet can be used for medicines by simply arranging the shelves in any convenient manner. A simple way is to have a series of horizontal grooves on the inside of each side, into which the shelves can be slipped at any desired distance apart. A design for an easily constructed medicine-cabinet for the wall is shown in Figs. 296 and 297.

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Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

A good size for a small cabinet is to have the main box-part, the cabinet proper, about 15" wide, 20" high, and 7" deep. It can be made of 1/2" stock. The construction is like that of the other cases already shown. The joints should properly be grooved (see _Grooving_ and _Gluing_), but the whole case can be nailed together, although the result will be inferior (see _Nailing_ and _Nail-set_). The back should be set in a rabbet as in the cases already shown. The arrangement of the hinges is shown in the illustration (see _Hinges_).

The partitions can be of thin stock (1/4" or 5/16"). The doors can have thick cleats, shaped as shown in Fig. 297 (enlarged in Fig. 297a), with holes bored down from the top for homoeopathic phials. Care must be taken not to bore the holes through (see _Boring_). Stop boring before the spur comes through and clean out the bottoms of the holes with a gouge.

A small drawer can be fitted to one of the small compartments, as in Fig. 297 (see _Drawers_). If the edges of the doors are made to lap slightly where they come together, rabbets being cut on opposite sides of the edges (Fig. 298), the joint will be tighter, but a little space must be allowed or the doors may bind. The rest of the details are like those of the cases already described.

See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and _Finishing_, in Part. V.

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=Bookcases.=--A plain case (Fig. 299) can be made of any desired size. If quite small 3/4" stock can be used, but ordinarily 7/8" thickness will be best. The method of construction is practically the same as in the cases already described.

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Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

The shelves can all be fastened in, if desired, but a good way is to groove the top and bottom shelves into the sides and make those between movable (see _Shelves_, in Part V.).

The back can be fitted by simply cutting a rabbet on the back edge of each side for the entire length (see _Rabbet_), and making the shelves of such a width that they will not project beyond the rabbet. A narrow piece can be screwed from the back lengthways, above the upper shelf, as shown in Fig. 300. The rest of the back can then be screwed in place (see _Boring_ and _Screws_). The back, being too wide to be made of one board, can very well (for a plain case of this sort) be of matched boards or sheathing.[24] Do not force the back too tightly into place,--that is, crossways of the boards. Allow a little play for the expansion and contraction.

See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and _Finishing_, in Part V.

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A "knock-down" method of putting together with tenons and wooden pins (Fig. 301) is not very difficult, but requires care and accuracy. In the case of the bookcase just shown, the upper and lower shelves can be pinned through the sides, which will hold the case firmly, and the other shelves can be movable (see _Shelves_). A case fastened in this way can be readily taken apart. This method can be applied to other designs for bookcases and cabinets.

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Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

The general principle is that of the mortise and tenon (see _Mortising_). If you cut the mortises for the pins before cutting the tenons on the ends of the shelves you will avoid the liability of splitting the tenons. The pins should taper and the angles of the pins and tenons be very slightly bevelled, that is, the sharp edge taken off.

The ends of these shelves can be slightly "cut under" or bevelled inwards (see Fig. 302, which is exaggerated), on the same principle that the ends of floor boards and the like are sometimes slightly bevelled, to ensure a closely fitting joint.

See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and _Finishing_, in Part V.

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A good form for an open bookcase suitable for the beginner to make is shown in Fig. 303. This design is suitable for a low, or dwarf, bookcase of whatever length may be desired. If of quite small size it can be made of 7/8" stock throughout, but in most cases a thin plank (perhaps 1-1/4" to 1-1/2" thick) had best be used for the ends.

A curtain can be added if desired.

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Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

The curves of the ends can be sawed by hand (see _Turning-saw_ and _Keyhole and Compass Saw_), or better by band-saw and jig-saw at a mill, and smoothed with spoke-shave and file (see _Spokeshave_ and _File_). The shelves (at least the upper and lower ones) should be grooved into the sides and glued (see _Grooving_ and _Gluing_), although, as in the other cases already described, nails can be used, but the result will be inferior (see _Nailing_ and _Nail-set_).

The plainness of the upright edges of the ends can be relieved by a little beading (Fig. 305), which you can do yourself or have moulded at the mill (see _Beading_).

Little brackets, screwed under the lower shelf at each end, as shown in Fig. 306, add to the stiffness of the case. A back can be fitted into rabbets as described above, but in this case it had best not come above the top shelf, a rabbet being cut on the under edge of the latter as well as in the sides. The bottom shelf can simply be made narrower and without a rabbet.

See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and _Finishing_, in Part V.

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The bookcase shown in Fig. 304 can be of any desired size and proportions. It can be of 7/8" stock, although the upright ends can well be of thin plank.

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Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

This case can simply be nailed together (see _Nailing_ and _Nail-set_), but the more workmanlike way is to groove the sides into the top and the bottom shelf into the sides (see _Grooving_). The second shelf from the top can be grooved into the sides, and the upright partition forming the cupboard can also be grooved in place. This process involves careful laying out and accurate cutting. The other shelves can be removable. The base-board can be bevelled or curved on the top edge (or moulded by machine) and can be mitred at the corners. It can be fastened with fine nails (see _Nailing_ and _Nail-set_). The front piece can be glued as well as the mitred joints. A moulding can be nailed around the top as shown, being mitred at the corners.[25]

The other details of construction do not differ from those of the cases just given, except in the matter of making and fitting the door, for which see _Doors_ in Part V.

A common way of making the sides of such cases is to make the side itself of board thickness, and to face the front edge with a strip (which can be glued on) from 1-1/4" to 2" wide, according to the size of the case, in the way shown in Fig. 305 (see _Gluing_). This gives a wider edge to the side and the shelves can fit behind the facing strip.

Beading can be worked on this strip, as shown (see _Beading_).

See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and _Finishing_, in Part V.

* * * * *

=Desk and Bookcase.=--Various combinations of book-shelves with a desk can be arranged. A useful form for a small one is shown in Fig. 306. The height is of course regulated by the necessary position of the desk-lid when dropped. The general principles of the construction are the same as those of the cases already shown.

* * * * *

Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

The wing, or attachment at the side, can be grooved into the side of the main part.

The back should reach across from one part to the other, which will give stiffness to the whole.

The desk-lid, which should be set in perhaps 3/8" from the front edge of the case, can be prevented from dropping too far by chains fastened inside to the lid and the sides of the case. Various other arrangements can be bought for holding a desk-lid in the proper place.

The inside of the lid must of course be smooth. If panelled as in Fig. 306 the panel must be thick enough to be flush with the frame on the inside (see _Doors_). There will be more or less of a crack around this panel, but this is unavoidable. Lids of this sort are sometimes made with a smooth surface (without frame or panelling), but this requires some form of cleating to prevent warping (see _Cleats_).

The small brackets under the lower shelf will help to stiffen the case.

A few shelves can easily be arranged in the desk compartment. If you wish a number of pigeon-holes and compartments, a good way for the amateur to fit these is to make an independent case of pigeon-holes and compartments, without front or back, of thin wood (perhaps 1/4"), and of such outside dimensions that it will just slip into the desk-space. This open box-like arrangement can be nailed together with fine brads.

The best way to make it is by fitting all the divisions into grooves, but to do this by hand requires more work and care than can be expected of the ordinary amateur. The grooving can be done by machine. A convenient arrangement is to have rows of parallel grooves into which the division boards can at any time be slipped to form compartments of any desired size.

See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and _Finishing_, in Part V.

* * * * *

=Music-Case.=--The construction of the form shown in Fig. 307 is like that of the examples already shown. The sides, top, and bottom should be of 3/4" or 7/8" stock, but the shelves can be thinner.

* * * * *

Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

This case can be simply nailed together (see _Nailing_ and _Nail-set_), but the more workmanlike way is to groove the bottom shelf into the sides and the sides into the top, as in the cases already shown (see _Grooving_).

A moulding at the top can be made as in the bookcase shown in Fig. 304.

For various ways of putting in the shelves, see _Shelves_, in Part V.

The back can be thinner (1/4") and should be fitted in a rabbet cut around, as already shown in the illustrations.

See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and _Finishing_, in Part V.

* * * * *

=Plant-Stands.=--The form shown in Fig. 308 is of quite simple construction and is useful to hold a large flower-pot. It should be made of 7/8" stock. The top can be from 8" to 12" square.

* * * * *

Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

Simply make a box (see _Box-making_, page 219), without top and bottom, with the grain of the four sides running up and down. Before putting together saw the curves at the bottom. As the grain of the four pieces all runs up and down, these sides can be glued together without nailing (see _Gluing_). Screw four cleats around the inside of the top (Fig. 309) with holes bored in them for screws with which to fasten on the top from underneath (see _Boring_ and _Screws_). Round the top edge as shown (see _Spokeshave_ and _File_), and smooth the surfaces. Then, having shaped the edge of the top as shown in Fig. 308, fasten it in place and the stand is ready to finish.

See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and _Finishing_, in Part V.

The form shown in Fig. 310 is made upon a similar principle, and can be of a larger size than would be satisfactory for the first pattern.

* * * * *

Much care must be taken to so lay out and cut the slanting edges of the sides that the pieces will come together accurately. After the top has been fastened on, a little piece of moulding can be put around beneath the edge of the top as shown, provided you have the skill to do it neatly. The corners must be mitred, and the moulding fastened on with fine brads, which must be set (see _Nailing_ and _Nail-set_).[26]

See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and _Finishing_, in Part V.

=Tables.=--A plain table, which although not especially ornamental is serviceable for many purposes, is shown in Fig. 311. It can be made of any size and proportions and the details can easily be varied.

* * * * *

Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

The construction is too simple to require special description. The legs and the cleats at the top should be of plank thickness, the rest of 7/8" stock. The legs can be halved where they cross (see _Halving_), or for a rough job can be simply nailed (see _Nailing_). The cleats at the top of the legs should be nailed or screwed to the legs, and will act as cleats to the top, which is fastened to them. The boards forming the top can be simply laid with the edges touching, for a rough job; but where a good surface is required the joints should be glued (see _Jointing_ and _Gluing_) and the surface smoothed afterwards.

Extra cleats can be put under the top if needed for stiffness, and additional lengthways stretchers can be added to connect the upper part of the legs.

The whole should be planed and sandpapered and can be shellaced or painted. The remaining details do not differ from those of the subjects already shown.

See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and _Finishing_, in Part V.

* * * * *

A table of simple construction and neat appearance (Fig. 312) can be of any desired size and proportions.

* * * * *

Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

The legs can be from 1-1/2" to 2-1/2" square, according to the size of the table. After being squared and cut to a length they should be tapered toward the bottom by planing down two opposite sides and then the other two. The tapering, however, should not extend to the tops of the legs, but to a point a little below the bottom of the rails, or cross-bars, which connect the legs. On the two inner sides of the legs mortises must be cut to receive tenons on the ends of the rails which connect the legs, as shown in Fig. 313 (see _Mortising_). These rails can be of 7/8" stock, the curves on the lower edge being cut with the turning-saw or compass and keyhole saw, and finished with spoke-shave and chisel or file. The curves can be omitted, of course, if preferred.

Do not try to put this table all together permanently at one operation. First put together two legs and the connecting piece, then the other two legs and the connecting piece, and finally join these two sides by the remaining rails. Glue the joints (see _Gluing_) and the parts should be securely clamped (see _Clamps_) until dry. Corner-blocks can be put in at the angles (see _Corner-blocks_).

Holes must be bored in the rails by which to fasten the top. If the rails are not too deep, vertical holes can be bored, countersinking deeply if necessary. Deep countersinking can be done by first boring a hole large enough to admit the head of the screw to the depth required, when the hole can be continued with a smaller bit. If the depth of the rail is too great for this process, the hole can be made by a species of counterboring, making first a larger hole in the side of the rail (on the inside), an inch or so from the top, and boring down into this hole from the top. A slanting cut can be made from below with the gouge to allow the screw to be slipped into the hole (Fig. 314). Another way is to screw cleats on the inside of the rail with a vertical hole through which the top can be screwed on (Fig. 315).

The top, if too wide for one board, should be glued up before being dressed off (see _Jointing_ and _Gluing_), and the edge shaped and smoothed. Then, laying the top face downward on the horses or bench, place the frame upside down upon the top. When in the exact position mark a line around the inside of the frame, continue the holes in the frame a little way into the top, using a bit a trifle smaller than the screws, and then screw the frame securely to the top (see _Boring_ and _Screws_), measuring carefully to see that you use screws which will not protrude through the top of the table. Depend entirely on the screws to hold the top on. Do not fasten a table-top on with glue (see _Laying out the work_, in Chapter IV.). If the table does not stand even, see _Scribing_ and _Winding-sticks_. The final scraping (see _Scraper_) of the top can well be left until the table is put together, when the whole, after being scraped, can be carefully sandpapered with fine sandpaper (see _Sandpaper_).

The remaining details do not differ from those of the articles already shown.

See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also _Finishing_, in Part V.

* * * * *

An excellent centre-table for the amateur to make (Fig. 316) is useful for many purposes. About three feet square on top is a convenient size.

* * * * *

Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V. and look up any other references.

Get out four legs, from 1-1/2" to 2" in diameter, according to the size of the table. They can be tapered slightly, as in the preceding case. Groove one side of each leg to receive the end of the cross-partition shown in the cut (see _Grooving_). These partitions can be 1/2" to 3/4" thick. One of them can extend across (diagonally) from post to post. The other can be in two parts, reaching to the centre; or the partitions can be in four parts, meeting in the centre. This framework of legs and cross-partitions can be bound together at the top by cleats screwed on top (Fig. 317), holes being made in the cleats by which they can in turn be screwed to the top of the table. The lower shelf, or shelves (being made in four parts), can be fastened up from underneath, cleats, also, being used if necessary. The shelves can be of 1/2" stock. The upper shelves can be fitted after the rest is put together and can rest upon cleats underneath, to which they can be fastened. The shape of the top is shown in Fig. 317a.

The remaining details do not differ from those in the preceding cases.

See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and _Finishing_, in Part V.

* * * * *

=Small Stand.=--A simple arrangement shown in Fig. 318 involves more difficulties than many of the other articles shown, but is not beyond the skill of the careful amateur. A good size is about 13" or 14" across the top and 17" or 18" high. Such a stand is useful to hold a flower-pot.

* * * * *

Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V. and look up any other references.

The top can be of 1/2" or 5/8" stock and the legs of 7/8" stock, the lower part tapering in thickness to 5/8" at the bottom. The curves can all be sawed at a mill for a small sum, and smoothed with spoke-shave and file (see _Spokeshave_ and _File_). The underside of the top can be bevelled at the edge (Fig. 319). This can be done with the spoke-shave. The file can be used to good advantage in the rounding of the extreme edge, finishing with sandpaper, but not until after the top surface has been finally smoothed (see _Spokeshave_, _File_, and _Sandpaper_).

The curved frame under the top and connecting the legs is to be made in four pieces, the legs being fitted between them (Fig. 320). These curved pieces should be got out a little too long and the ends carefully sawed to make a tight joint with the legs. Be sure that all these parts fit accurately before you finally put them together. Screw them together, toeing screws into the legs. Use glue at the joints of the curved frame and the legs, but do not glue the frame to the top.

The remaining details do not differ from those in the preceding cases.

See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and _Finishing_, in Part V.

* * * * *

=Small Table.=--Fig. 321 shows a good form for a small stand suitable for various purposes, which, although not as easy to make as it looks, is not too hard for the amateur who has acquired some familiarity with his tools. It can be made of any desired height or proportions.

* * * * *

Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

Get out the top as in the small stand last shown. The thickness can vary from 1/2" to 7/8" according to the size of the table. The legs should not be fastened directly to the top, but to a cleat framework to be screwed to the top (Fig. 322). This helps prevent the top from warping. The legs can be round or six-sided and should be tapered (see _Rounding-sticks_). A tenon or dowel should be made at the upper end of each leg to fit into a hole in the cleat framework.

The hexagonal shelf at the bottom can be of 1/2" stock and should be notched or grooved into the legs, the extreme angles of the shelf being cut off (Fig. 323). A fine screw toed from underneath through the shelf into the leg (Fig. 324) will strengthen the joint, and after the whole is fastened together, little brackets can be screwed with fine screws in the angle between the lower shelf and the leg. All the joints should be glued except where the cleats are fastened to the top, in which case screws alone should be used. Much care is required to make all these joints accurately, and to put the whole table together properly.

The remaining details do not differ from those in the preceding cases.

See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and _Finishing_, in Part V.

* * * * *

=Footstool or Cricket.=--A common low seat or cricket (Fig. 325) can be made of 5/8" or 7/8" stock and of any desired size.

* * * * *

Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

The hardest part of this job is to cut the bevels where the sides meet the top and at the ends of the stretcher between the sides (see _Bevelling_). You will probably find it easier to lay out and cut the ends of the sides before they are tapered. The edges of the top can be slightly rounded.

After the parts are nailed together (see _Nailing_) set the nails (see _Nail-set_). The remaining details do not differ from those of the cases already described.

See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and _Finishing_, in Part V.

* * * * *

=Out-Door Seat.=--The construction of the plain chair shown in Fig. 326 is too obvious to require special description.

* * * * *

Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

This seat can be made of thin plank. The most difficult part is the bevelling of the joints (see _Bevelling_).

The remaining details do not differ from those in the preceding cases. For the painting see _Painting_, in Part V.

=Bookcase and Lounge.=--"Combination" articles of furniture are, as a rule, frequently undesirable on the ground of taste, and often are not as convenient as to have the parts made separately. But the amateur may sometimes find it desirable to join two or more different pieces to fit some particular spot or for some special reason. Examples are given in the bookcase and desk (Fig. 306), in the combination for a corner (Fig. 328), and in Fig. 327. These are given as suggestive of the kind of combinations that can be suitably undertaken by the amateur, and many simple arrangements can readily be contrived when desired.

* * * * *

Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

The new principles involved in this design are merely in the combination. The bookcase and the cupboard (which can be open if desired) are similar to those already shown, and the lounge is simply a shelf or box-like arrangement connecting the two. The back of the lounge is merely a board fastened by screws. The appearance of the article depends much upon the upholstering. This should not be done until after the finishing of the wood-work.

The remaining details are not different from those of the articles already shown.

See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and _Finishing_, in Part V.

Another combination, suitable for a corner, is shown in Fig. 328. The principles involved are the same as for the other articles already described and the construction is obvious.

* * * * *

=Table and Settle, or Chair-Table.=--This is an excellent form of table for the amateur to make and is useful for many purposes (Figs. 329 and 330). If of moderate size, it can be made of 7/8" stock, but if large, and to be subjected to rough usage, thin plank will be more suitable for the ends and top. Another good form of chair-table can be made on the same principle by making a narrower seat, or a heavy chair, and attaching a circular top by hinges to the back of the arms of the seat.

Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

The framing of the lower part is similar to that of a box. Get out the upright ends and the front and back of the box part and fit them together as shown in Fig. 331, a rabbet (see _Rabbet_) or groove being cut to receive the bottom. The lid, which forms the seat, can be arranged as shown (see _Hinges_). The top, made like any table-top and fastened by screws to the deep cleats shown (see _Screws_), is pivoted to either side of the upright ends by pins when a seat is desired. When you wish to use the table and the top is lowered, it can be held in place by inserting pins in the other two holes also. The pins should not be less than 1/2" or 3/4" in diameter. Care must be used in laying off the points for making these holes (see _Boring_).

The remaining details are not different from those of the articles already shown.

See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and _Finishing_, in Part V.

=Cabinet for Guns, Fishing-Rods, Etc.=--A convenient form is shown in Fig. 332. The construction is similar to that of the bookcases and cabinets already shown. The stock for the case itself can be 7/8" in thickness, for the larger divisions 3/4", and for the small partitions 1/2".

Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

If you make the doors with glass panels, as shown, these can be set in rabbets cut on the inside of the door frames and held in place by strips of "quarter-round" moulding. The doors can be fitted between the sides or can lap over the edges of the sides, as you prefer (see _Doors_). The drawers can be omitted if too difficult to make well (see _Drawers_), and small boxes of various sizes stored upon the shelves can be used as a substitute.

The remaining details are not different from those of the articles already shown.

See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and _Finishing_, in Part V.

* * * * *

=Picture Frames.=--These are often undertaken by the amateur, but making them well is much more difficult than it seems to the beginner.

* * * * *

Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references.

If you buy the prepared mouldings so much in use, they will, in most cases, have to be mitred at the corners, which is an operation by no means easy for the beginner, particularly when the moulding is sprung or twisted, as is often the case. Those joints which do not close properly must be trimmed with the plane, for which purpose the mitre shooting-board is useful (see page 94), and all four joints should fit accurately before finally putting together, so that none will have to be sprung or twisted in order to close up. At the same time you must guard against winding by sighting across the face, and the angles must be tested with the square. The clamping together is important in such work. This can be done by laying the frame flat, nailing strips a short distance outside of each of the four corners, and driving in wedges between these strips and the frame until the joints are firmly held (Fig. 333). This can also be done by putting blocks at the corners and passing a doubled cord around, which, by inserting a stick, can be twisted until the frame is held tightly. But making mitred frames of moulding is not suitable work for the beginner and should be deferred until you have had some experience (see _Mitring_).

For a plain frame nothing is better than a joint with mortise and tenon (Fig. 334), the rabbet (see _Rabbet_) at the back being cut through to the ends of the shorter pieces (those having the tenons), but being stopped before reaching the ends of the longer pieces (those having the mortises), as shown. The latter should be got out too long, so as to overlap a little at the ends (Fig. 334). This enables you to take the frame apart more readily when fitting, and with less danger of injury to the work. The projecting ends can be sawed off after the frame has been glued together (see _Mortising_, _Gluing_, and _Clamps_). The final planing and smoothing of the front surface and the edges should be done after the frame is glued together, careful attention being paid to the direction of the grain (see _Plane_, _Scraper_, and _Sandpaper_).

After a frame of this kind is all done, an inner moulding with a row of beads, or some other simple form, can easily be fitted to the rabbet, if desired.

See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also _Finishing_, in Part V.

FOOTNOTES:

[24] This method of putting in a back answers very well for the beginner, and is often used in cheap work, but, unless quite small, the really workmanlike way is to make a panelled frame, which is screwed in place as one piece. The degree to which the panelling is carried depends upon the size and shape of the back. When you become able to make your work more neatly and accurately than can be expected of the beginner, you will do well to construct the backs in this way, but it involves much more labour and is hardly worth while for such simple work as you will do at first.

[25] A more workmanlike way is to work all such mouldings on the edge of the top, making it as much thicker as may be required, thus avoiding putting on the moulding across the grain of the piece to which it is fastened, which is not a scientific form of construction; and for that matter it is a more thoroughly workmanlike way to work all mouldings on the solid wood.

The top can be made of two thicknesses, the moulding being worked on the edge of the under piece before the two are glued together. Various forms of moulding can be worked on the edge by a moulding machine at almost any wood-working mill.

[26] See footnote on page 198.