CHAPTER VIII.

THE USE OF THE FOREST.

Man's relation to the forest has not been entirely destructive and injurious. He has exerted and is more and more exerting influences which while still enabling him to use the forest, also preserve and improve it. These activities may all be included under the term Forestry.

The objects of modern forestry then are threefold: 1. The _utilization_ of the forest and its products, the main object; 2. The _preservation_ of the forest, _i.e._, its continued reproduction; 3. The _improvement_ of the forest.

UTILIZATION.

The uses of the forest are threefold: (1) Protective, (2) Productive, and (3) Esthetic.

(1) _Protective._ The forest may be used as a protection against floods, wind, shifting sand, heat, drought, etc. The National Forests of the United States, Fig. 119, with the state forests, which include one-fifth of the total forest area, are largely treated as "protection forests" to maintain the head waters of streams, Fig. 120, used for irrigation, for power or for commerce. The attempt now being made to reserve large areas in the White Mountains and southern Appalachians is chiefly for this purpose of protection.

A comparison of Figs. 120 and 121 shows clearly the difference between a region protected by forest and one unprotected.[1]

(2) _Productive._ All practical foresters have as their first aim the _yield_ of the forest. This distinguishes forestry from landscape architecture, the object of which may equally be the preservation and improvement of a given tract. The crop to be produced is as truly the prime concern of the forester as the raising of agricultural crops is the prime concern of the farmer. It is for this reason that forestry is said to be the same thing as conservative lumbering, Fig. 122. The prejudice of lumbermen against forestry has arisen from a misunderstanding of its aim. Its aim is not to prevent the cutting down of trees, but to direct their cutting in such ways that in the future there will still be trees to cut. "Thru use to a greater use," is the motto of the Forest Service. The difference between destructive lumbering and conservative lumbering is that the former cuts one crop regardless of the future; while the latter plans to cut crop after crop indefinitely. In other words, in conservative lumbering, the trees to be cut are not selected solely with reference to their immediate market value. Not one crop, but many, is the forester's motto.

So long as the supply seemed exhaustless, forests might be and were treated as mines are, _i.e._, exploited for the sake of immediate profit; but now that lumbermen begin to realize that the end of the supply is in sight, more conservative methods are being adopted. We cannot afford to kill the goose that lays the golden eggs. In order then to obtain as rich harvests as possible, the modern forester makes use of various methods, some negative, some positive.

Waste is avoided in all possible ways, stumps are cut low and tops high on the trunk, first class trees are not used for skids, bridges, roads, etc., care is taken in "falling" trees and in dragging out logs, that they will not injure other trees. Just as economical disposal of the log has already been carried to a high degree of perfection in the saw-mill, (see _Handwork in Wood_, Chapter II,) so one object of forestry is to carry this economy back into the woods.

One of the underlying ideas in conservative lumbering is that the "yield," _i.e._, the amount of wood taken out of a healthy forest in a given time, shall be equal to the amount grown during the same period. If less is taken out than grows, some trees will overmature and decay; if more is taken out than grows, the forest will ultimately be exhausted.

This principle may be carried out in a number of ways; but in any case it is necessary to know how fast the forest is reproducing itself, and this is one of the functions of the forester. The United States Forest Service makes a definite offer of cooperation with farmers and lumbermen and owners of forests to provide them with skilled foresters for direction in this matter.

In the United States, the most practicable way of determining the yield is by area, _i.e._, a certain fraction of a forest is to be cut over once in a given length of time, a year or longer. The time between two successive cuttings on the same area must be long enough to allow the young trees left standing to ripen.

In a word, conservative lumbering involves (1) the treatment of the forest as a source of crops, (2) systematic gathering, and (3) young growth so left as to replace the outgo.

The important place that forests fill in the national economy may be realized partly by the citation of a few facts as to the forest products. The lumber industry is the fourth in value of products among the great manufacturing industries of the United States, being exceeded only by the iron and steel, the textile, and the meat industries. It turns out a finished product worth $567,000,000.00. And yet lumber constitutes only about one-half of the value of the total output of forest products. Its annual value is three-fourths of a billion dollars, ($666,641,367 in 1907,) while the annual value of wood fuel, is $350,000,000. More than two-thirds of the people burn wood for fuel. The next largest single item in the list is shingles and laths, $32,000,000. (See _Forestry Bulletin_ No. 74, p. 7.)

Outside of food products, no material is so universally used and so indispensable in human economy as wood. (Fernow, _Econ._, p. 21.)

The importance of forest products may also be learned from a mere list of the varied uses to which they are put. Such a list would include: fuel, wood and charcoal; houses (over half the population of the United States live in wooden houses); the wooden parts of masonry and steel buildings; scaffolding; barns, sheds and outhouses; ships, with all their parts, and the masts and trim of steel ships, boats and canoes; oars and paddles; railway ties (annual expenditure $50,000,000), railway cars, a million in number; trestles and bridges (more than 2,000 miles in length); posts and fencing; cooperage stock (low estimate, $25,000,000 annually); packing crates, including coffins; baskets; electric wire poles (annual cost about $10,000,000); piles and submerged structures, like canal locks and water-wheels; windmills; mining timbers (yearly cost, $7,500,000), indispensable in all mining operations (for every 100 tons of coal mined, 2 tons of mining timber are needed); street paving; veneers ($5,000,000.00 worth made annually); vehicles, including carriages, wagons, automobiles and sleighs; furniture; machines and their parts; patterns for metal molding; tools and tool handles; musical instruments; cigar boxes; matches; toothpicks; pencils; (315 million a year in the U. S., requiring over 7 million cubic feet of wood); engraving blocks; shoe lasts, shoe trees and parts of shoes; hat blocks; agricultural implements; hop and bean poles; playthings and toys, for both children and adults; Christmas trees and decorations; pipes; walking sticks; umbrella handles; crutches and artificial limbs; household utensils; excelsior.

Products other than wood: Turpentine and resin (worth $20,000,000 a year); tar; oils; tan-bark, 1-1/2 million cords (worth $13,000,000 a year); wood alcohol; wood pulp (worth $15,000,000 a year); nuts; cellulose for collars, combs and car wheels; balsam, medicines; lampblack; dyes; paper fiber (xylolin) for textiles; shellac and varnish ($8,500,000 worth imported in 1907); vinegar and acetic acid; confections (including maple sugar and syrup at $2,500,000 a year).

(3) The _Esthetic_ and sentimental uses of the forest, tho not to be estimated in dollars and cents, are nevertheless of incalculable benefit to the community. They would include the use of the forest as pleasure grounds, for hunting, fishing, camping, photography, and general sightseeing. Notable instances of the growing appreciation of these uses of the forest are the reservation of the Yellowstone and Yosemite Parks as pleasure grounds.

PRESERVATION.

The second object of forestry is the preservation of the forest, or continued reproduction.

In addition to obtaining crops of trees, the forester plans to keep the forest in such condition that it will constantly reproduce itself and never become exhausted.

This does not mean that no forests are to be cut down, or that a given area, once a forest, is to be always a forest. Just as the individual farmer needs some land for fields, some for pasture, and some for woodlots, so the nation needs some for cities, some for farms, some for pleasure grounds, and some for forests. But it does mean that fruitful forests shall not be turned into wildernesses as thousands of square miles now are, by the methods of destructive lumbering.

In general, better land is necessary for agriculture than for forestry, and it is therefore only the part of wisdom to use the better land for fields and reserve the poorer land for forests. There are in the United States enormous regions that are fit for nothing but forests, but many of these, as in Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan, have simply been denuded of their trees and no provision has been made for their reproduction. This then is the second aim of forestry,--to treat the forest so that it will continue to reproduce itself.

In order to obtain this result, certain forest conditions have to be preserved. What these conditions are, we have already noticed (see Chap. V, The Forest Organism). They are partly topographical and climatic and partly historical. They include such factors as, soil, moisture, temperature, and light, the forest cover, the forest floor, the density and mixture of growth, all conditions of forest growth. It is only as the forester preserves these conditions, or to put it otherwise, it is only as he obeys the laws of the forest organism that he can preserve the forest. For a long period of our national history, we Americans were compelled to conform our life and institutions to the presence of the primeval forest, but by long observation of what happens naturally in the forest, there have been developed in Europe and in America certain ways of handling it so as to make it our servant and not our master.

These ways are called silvicultural systems. They are all based on the nature of the forest itself, and they succeed only because they are modifications of what takes place naturally in the woods.

As we have seen above (p. 220) trees reproduce themselves either by sprouts or by seeds. This fact gives rise to two general methods of reproduction, called the coppice systems and the seed systems.

_Coppice_, Fig. 123. In the simpler form of this system, the forest is divided into a certain number of parts, say thirty, and one part is cut down each year. New sprouts at once start up, which will mature a year later than those in the part cut the previous year. Where the trees of each part are thirty years old at cutting, thirty years is called the "rotation period." The coppice is said to be managed on a thirty-year rotation. The system is widely used in eastern United States, for fuel, posts, charcoal, railway ties, and other small stuff, as well as for tan-bark. This system is modified by maintaining an overwood composed of seedling trees or selected sprouts above a stand of sprouts. This is called the Reserve Sprout method and is used with admirable results by the French.

_Seed Forests._ In contrast with coppice forests, those raised from seeds produce the best class of timber, such as is used for saw logs.

_Seeding from the side_, Fig. 124. Many forests naturally spread at their borders from the scattering of their seeds. "Old field pine" is so called from its tendency to spread in this way on old fields. This natural "Seeding from the Side" has given rise to the "Group System," in which an area of ripe trees is cut off and the trees alongside are depended upon to reproduce new ones on the cut-over area. The openings are gradually enlarged until all the old timber is cut out, and the young growth has taken its place. In its best form there is a definite "rotation period," say eighty years. This system is simple, safe, and very useful, especially for small openings in woodlots. A modification of this is the "Strip System," in which long narrow openings, say seventy-five yards wide, are cut out and gradually widened. The strips are cut in the proper direction so that the prevailing winds will cross them, both for the sake of avoiding windfalls and to help scatter the seed. Where the soil is very dry, the strips may run east and west to protect the seedlings from the sun.

_Selection Forests._ The typical virgin forest, Fig. 125, is one in which trees of all ages are closely intermingled, and it may be either "mixed" or "pure." If a farmer had a woodlot of this character and every year went over it with the ax, cutting out such trees as he needed for his purpose, and also trees whose removal would improve the woods, but taking care not to cut out each year more than the amount of the average growth, he would be using the "Selection System." This system is the best way of keeping a forest dense and of preserving one which is difficult to start afresh, as on a mountain slope; it is practicable where the woods are small or under a high state of care, as in Europe, where this system has been in use for seven centuries. But the cost of road maintenance and of logging is high and it is therefore impracticable in most lumber regions in the United States, except for woods of especial value, like black walnut.

_Localized Selection._ If instead of the whole forest being treated in this way every year, it were divided up into perhaps twenty parts, and from each part there were taken out each year as much lumber as would equal the annual growth of the whole forest, such a system would be called "Localized Selection." The cost of logging would be greatly reduced and if care were taken to leave standing some seed trees and to cut no trees below a determined size, as twelve inches, the forest would maintain itself in good condition. This system has been applied with great success in certain private forests in the Adirondacks.

_Regular Seed Forest or High Forest._ In the system already mentioned above of seeding from the side, the trees near the cut areas are depended upon to seed these areas. Moreover, no especial pains are taken to preserve the forest floor and the forest cover. But all trees do not bear seeds annually, nor do their seedlings thrive under such conditions. In other words, in some forests especial pains must be taken to secure reproduction, and the forest conditions must be maintained with special reference to the growing crop. For this purpose, the cuttings take place thru a series of years, sometimes lasting even twenty years. These reproduction cuttings have reference, now to a stimulus to the seed trees, now to the preparation of the seed bed, now to the encouragement of the seedlings. Then later, the old crop is gradually cut away. Later still, in twenty or thirty years, the new forest is thinned, and when it reaches maturity, perhaps in one hundred or two hundred years, the process is repeated. This is called the "Regular Seed Forest." It produces very valuable timber, and has been used for a long time in Switzerland, especially for beech and balsam.

The system is complicated and therefore unsafe in ignorant hands, and the logging is expensive.

_Two-storied Seed Forest._ A modification of the system of Regular Seed Forest is the planting of another and a tolerant species of tree under older intolerant trees to make a cover for the soil, to prevent the growth of grass and weeds, and to improve the quality of the upper growth.[2]

An illustration of a natural two-storied seed forest is shown in Fig. 126.

_Planting._ The planting of forest trees is a comparatively unimportant part of modern forestry. It is a mistaken idea, not uncommon, that the usual way of reproducing forests is to plant trees. It is true that in the pineries of North Germany and in the spruce forests of Saxony, it is common to cut clean and then replant, but it is absurd to conclude, as some have done, that forestry consists of planting a tree every time one is cut. Even if planting were the best method, many more than one tree would have to be planted for each one cut, in order to maintain the forest. So far as America is concerned, not for a long time will planting be much used for reproduction.

The greater portion of American woodlands is in the condition of culled forests, that is, forests from which the merchantable trees have been cut, leaving the younger individuals, as well as all trees belonging to unmarketable species. Even on the areas where the lumbermen have made a clean cut of the original timber, new trees will come up of themselves from seeds blown from the surrounding forests or falling from occasional individuals left standing. (Bruncken, p. 133.)

The usefulness of planting in America is mainly for reclaiming treeless regions, as in the west, and where timber is high priced. The area of planted timber in the Middle West aggregates many hundred thousand acres, once waste land, now converted into useful woods.[3]

Planting has been made possible in the far west by extensive irrigation systems, and farther east by the lessening of prairie fires, which once set the limit to tree growth in the prairie states. In many parts of Illinois, southern Wisconsin and other prairie States, there is much more forest land than there was twenty-five years ago.

What planting can do, may be seen on some worn out pastures in New England, Fig. 127. With the western movement of agriculture, the abandoned farms of New England are to some extent becoming re-forested, both naturally and by planting, as with white pine, which grows even on sandy soil. Between 1820 and 1880, there was a period of enthusiastic white-pine planting in New England, and tho the interest died on account of the cheap transportation of western lumber, those early plantations prove that white pine can be planted at a profit even on sand barrens. Once worn out and useless pastures are now worth $150 an acre and produce yearly a net income of $3 or more an acre.

IMPROVEMENT.

Besides utilization and preservation, the third main object of forestry is the improvement of the forest. It is not an uncommon mistake to suppose that the virgin forest is the best forest for human purposes. It is a comparatively new idea, especially in America, that a forest can be improved; that is, that better trees can be raised than those which grow naturally. Lumbermen commonly say, "You never can raise a second growth of white pine as good as the first growth." As if this "first growth" were not itself the successsor of thousands of other generations! There is even a legend that white pine will not grow in its old habitat. Says Bruncken,

Many people probably imagine that a primeval wood, "by nature's own hand planted," cannot be surpassed in the number and size of its trees, and consequently in the amount of wood to be derived from it. But the very opposite is true. No wild forest can ever equal a cultivated one in productiveness. To hope that it will, is very much as if a farmer were to expect a full harvest from the grain that may spring up spontaneously in his fields without his sowing. A tract of wild forest in the first place does not contain so many trees as might grow thereon, but only so many as may have survived the struggle for life with their own and other species of plants occupying the locality. Many of the trees so surviving never attain their best development, being suppressed, overshadowed, and hindered by stronger neighbors. Finally much of the space that might be occupied by valuable timber may be given up to trees having little or no market value. The rule is universal that the amount and value of material that can be taken from an area of wild forest remains far behind what the same land may bear if properly treated by the forester. It is certain, therefore, that in the future, when most American forests shall be in a high state of cultivation, the annual output of forests will, from a much restricted area, exceed everything known at the present day. (Bruncken, _North American Forests and Forestry_, pp. 134-135.)

It is probable that the virgin forest produces but a tithe of the useful material which it is capable of producing. (Fernow, p. 98.)

Mr. Burbank has demonstrated that trees can be bred for any particular quality,--for largeness, strength, shape, amount of pitch, tannin, sugar and the like, and for rapidity of growth; in fact that any desirable attribute of a tree may be developed simply by breeding and selecting. He has created walnut trees, by crossing common varieties, that have grown six times as much in thirteen years as their ancestors did in twenty-eight years, preserving at the same time, the strength, hardness and texture of their forebears. The grain of the wood has been made more beautiful at the same time. The trees are fine for fuel and splendidly adapted to furniture manufacture. (Harwood, _The New Earth_, p. 179.)

Nature provides in the forest merely those varieties that will survive. Man, by interfering in Nature's processes but obeying her laws, raises what he wants. Nature says: those trees that survive are fit and does not care whether the trees be straight or crooked, branched or clear. Man says: those trees shall survive which are fit for human uses. Man raises better grains and fruits and vegetables than Nature, unaided, can, and, in Europe, better trees for lumber. In America there has been such an abundance of trees good enough for our purposes that we have simply gone out and gathered them, just as a savage goes out to gather berries and nuts. Some day our descendants will smile at our treatment of forests much as we smile at root-digging savages, unless, indeed, we so far destroy the forests that they will be more angered than amused. In Europe and Japan, the original supply of trees having been exhausted, forests have been cultivated for centuries with the purpose of raising crops larger in quantity and better in quality.

There are various methods used in forest improvement. Improvement cuttings, as the name implies, are cuttings made to improve the quality of the forest, whether by thinning out poor species of trees, unsound trees, trees crowding more valuable ones, or trees called "wolves"; that is, trees unduly overshadowing others. Improvement cuttings are often necessary as a preliminary step before any silvicultural system can be applied. Indeed, many of the silvicultural systems involve steady improvement of the forest.

The pruning of branches is a method of improvement, carrying on the natural method by which trees in a forest clean themselves of their branches.

Seeds of valuable species are often sowed, when the conditions are proper, in order to introduce a valuable species, just as brooks and ponds are stocked with fine fish. In general it may be said that improvement methods are only in their infancy, especially in America.

[Footnote 1: A concise and interesting statement of the relation of the forest to rain and floods is to be found in Pinchot: _Primer of Forestry_, Bulletin No. 24, Part II, Chap. III.]

[Footnote 2: For an interesting account of an application of this method, see Ward, p. 35.]

[Footnote 3: To encourage such forest extension, the Forest Service is doing much by the publication of bulletins recommending methods and trees suited to special regions, as, e.g., on Forest Planting in Illinois, in the Sand Hill Region of Nebraska, on Coal Lands in Western Pennsylvania, in Western Kansas, in Oklahoma and adjacent regions, etc.]

THE USE OF THE FOREST.

REFERENCES:[A]

I Utilization.

Pinchot, _Primer_, II, pp. 14-18, 38-48. Bruncken, pp. 121-131, _For. Bull._ No. 61.

(1) Protective.

Pinchot, _Primer_, II, pp. 66-73. Craft, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1905, pp. 636-641, (Map. p. 639.) Toumey, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1903, p. 279. Bruncken, pp. 166-173. _For. and Irrig._, passim. Shaler, I, pp. 485-489.

(2) Productive.

Kellogg, _For. Bull._, No. 74, Fernow, _For. Invest._, p. 9. Roth, _First Book_, p. 133. Zon & Clark, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1907, p. 277. Boulger, pp. 60-76. Roth, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1896, p. 391. Fernow, _Economics_, pp. 23-33.

(3) Esthetic.

Roth, _First Book_, p. 180.

II Preservation.

Pinchot, _Primer_, II, pp. 18-36. Bruncken, pp. 95, 190. Graves, _For. Bull._, No. 26, pp. 67-70. Roth, _First Book_, pp. 41-76, 193-194. Roth, _For. Bull._, No. 16, pp. 8, 9. Fernow, _Economics_, 165-196.

Planting.

Roth, _First Book_, pp. 76-94, 195-198. Hall, _Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1902, pp. 145-156. _For. Circs._, Nos. 37, 41, 45, 81. Bruncken, pp. 92, 133. _Forestry Bulletins_ Nos. 18, 45, 52, 65.

III Improvement.

Bruncken, pp. 134-135, 152-160. Graves, _For. Bull._, No. 26, p. 39. Pinchot, _Adirondack Spruce_, p. 4. Harwood, pp. 143-181.

[Footnote A: For general bibliography, see p. 4.]

APPENDIX.

HOW TO DISTINGUISH THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF WOOD.[A]

BY B. E. FERNOW AND FILIBERT ROTH.

The carpenter or other artisan who handles different woods, becomes familiar with those he employs frequently, and learns to distinguish them thru this familiarity, without usually being able to state the points of distinction. If a wood comes before him with which he is not familiar, he has, of course, no means of determining what it is, and it is possible to select pieces even of those with which he is well acquainted, different in appearance from the general run, that will make him doubtful as to their identification. Furthermore, he may distinguish between hard and soft pines, between oak and ash, or between maple and birch, which are characteristically different; but when it comes to distinguishing between the several species of pine or oak or ash or birch, the absence of readily recognizable characters is such that but few practitioners can be relied upon to do it. Hence, in the market we find many species mixed and sold indiscriminately.

To identify the different woods it is necessary to have a knowledge of the definite, invariable differences in their structure, besides that of the often variable differences in their appearance. These structural differences may either be readily visible to the naked eye or with a magnifier, or they may require a microscopical examination. In some cases such an examination can not be dispensed with, if we would make absolutely sure. There are instances, as in the pines, where even our knowledge of the minute anatomical structure is not yet sufficient to make a sure identification.

In the following key an attempt has been made--the first, so far as we know, in English literature--to give a synoptical view of the distinctive features of the commoner woods of the United States, which are found in the markets or are used in the arts. It will be observed that the distinction has been carried in most instances no further than to genera or classes of woods, since the distinction of species can hardly be accomplished without elaborate microscopic study, and also that, as far as possible, reliance has been placed only on such characteristics as can be distinguished with the naked eye or a simple magnifying glass, in order to make the key useful to the largest number. Recourse has also been taken for the same reason to the less reliable and more variable general external appearance, color, taste, smell, weight, etc.

The user of the key must, however, realize that external appearance, such, for example, as color, is not only very variable but also very difficult to describe, individual observers differing especially in seeing and describing shades of color. The same is true of statements of size, when relative, and not accurately measured, while weight and hardness can perhaps be more readily approximated. Whether any feature is distinctly or only indistinctly seen will also depend somewhat on individual eyesight, opinion, or practice. In some cases the resemblance of different species is so close that only one other expedient will make distinction possible, namely, a knowledge of the region from which the wood has come. We know, for instance, that no longleaf pine grows in Arkansas and that no white pine can come from Alabama, and we can separate the white cedar, giant arbor vitae of the West and the arbor vitae of the Northeast, only by the difference of the locality from which the specimen comes. With all these limitations properly appreciated, the key will be found helpful toward greater familiarity with the woods which are more commonly met with.

The features which have been utilized in the key and with which--their names as well as their appearance--therefore, the reader must familiarize himself before attempting to use the key, are mostly described as they appear in cross-section. They are:

(1) Sap-wood and heart-wood (see p. 17), the former being the wood from the outer and the latter from the inner part of the tree. In some cases they differ only in shade, and in others in kind of color, the heart-wood exhibiting either a darker shade or a pronounced color. Since one can not always have the two together, or be certain whether he has sap-wood or heart-wood, reliance upon this feature is, to be sure, unsatisfactory, yet sometimes it is the only general characteristic that can be relied upon. If further assurance is desired, microscopic structure must be examined; in such cases reference has been made to the presence or absence of tracheids in pith rays and the structure of their walls, especially projections and spirals.

(2) Annual rings, their formation having been described on page 19. (See also Figs. 128-130.) They are more or less distinctly marked, and by such marking a classification of three great groups of wood is possible.

(3) Spring wood and summer wood, the former being the interior (first formed wood of the year), the latter the exterior (last formed) part of the ring. The proportion of each and the manner in which the one merges into the other are sometimes used, but more frequently the manner in which the pores appear distributed in either.

(4) Pores, which are vessels cut thru, appearing as holes in cross-section, in longitudinal section as channels, scratches, or identifications. (See p. 23 and Figs. 129 and 130.) They appear only in the broad-leaved, so called, hard woods; their relative size (large, medium, small, minute, and indistinct when they cease to be visible individually by the naked eye) and manner of distribution in the ring being of much importance, and especially in the summer wood, where they appear singly, in groups, or short broken lines, in continuous concentric, often wavy lines, or in radial branching lines.

(5) Resin ducts (see p. 26 and Fig. 128) which appear very much like pores in cross-section, namely, as holes or lighter or darker colored dots, but much more scattered. They occur only in coniferous woods, and their presence or absence, size, number, and distribution are an important distinction in these woods.

(6) Pith rays (see p. 21 and Figs. 129 and 130), which in cross-section appear as radial lines, and in radial section as interrupted bands of varying breadth, impart a peculiar luster to that section in some woods. They are most readily visible with the naked eye or with a magnifier in the broad-leaved woods. In coniferous woods they are usually so fine and closely packed that to the casual observer they do not appear. Their breadth and their greater or less distinctness are used as distinguishing marks, being styled fine, broad, distinct, very distinct, conspicuous, and indistinct when no longer visible by the naked (strong) eye.

(7) Concentric lines, appearing in the summer wood of certain species more or less distinct, resembling distantly the lines of pores but much finer and not consisting of pores. (See Fig. 129.)

Of microscopic features, the following only have been referred to:

(8) Tracheids, a description of which is to be found on page 28.

(9) Pits, simple and bordered, especially the number of simple pits in the cells of the pith rays, which lead into each of the adjoining tracheids.

For standards of weight, consult table on pages 50 and 192; for standards of hardness, table on page 195.

Unless otherwise stated the color refers always to the fresh cross-section of a piece of dry wood; sometimes distinct kinds of color, sometimes only shades, and often only general color effects appear.

[Footnote A: From Forestry Bulletin No. 10, _U. S. Department of Agriculture_.]

HOW TO USE THE KEY.

Nobody need expect to be able to use successfully any key for the distinction of woods or of any other class of natural objects without some practice. This is especially true with regard to woods, which are apt to vary much, and when the key is based on such meager general data as the present. The best course to adopt is to supply one's self with a small sample collection of woods, accurately named. Small, polished tablets are of little use for this purpose. The pieces should be large enough, if possible, to include pith and bark, and of sufficient width to permit ready inspection of the cross-section. By examining these with the aid of the key, beginning with the better-known woods, one will soon learn to see the features described and to form an idea of the relative standards which the maker of the key had in mind. To aid in this, the accompanying illustrations will be of advantage. When the reader becomes familiar with the key, the work of identifying any given piece will be comparatively easy. The material to be examined must, of course, be suitably prepared. It should be moistened; all cuts should be made with a very sharp knife or razor and be clean and smooth, for a bruised surface reveals but little structure. The most useful cut may be made along one of the edges. Instructive, thin, small sections may be made with a sharp penknife or razor, and when placed on a piece of thin glass, moistened and covered with another piece of glass, they may be examined by holding them toward the light.

Finding, on examination with the magnifier, that it contains pores, we know it is not coniferous or non-porous. Finding no pores collected in the spring-wood portion of the annual ring, but all scattered (diffused) thru the ring, we turn at once to the class of "Diffuse-porous woods." We now note the size and manner in which the pores are distributed thru the ring. Finding them very small and neither conspicuously grouped, nor larger nor more abundant in the spring-wood, we turn to the third group of this class. We now note the pith rays, and finding them neither broad nor conspicuous, but difficult to distinguish, even with the magnifier, we at once exclude the wood from the first two sections of this group and place it in the third, which is represented by only one kind, cottonwood. Finding the wood very soft, white, and on the longitudinal section with a silky luster, we are further assured that our determination is correct. We may now turn to the list of woods and obtain further information regarding the occurrence, qualities, and uses of the wood.

Sometimes our progress is not so easy; we may waver in what group or section to place the wood before us. In such cases we may try each of the doubtful roads until we reach a point where we find ourselves entirely wrong and then return and take up another line; or we may anticipate some of the later mentioned features and finding them apply to our specimen, gain additional assurance of the direction we ought to travel. Color will often help us to arrive at a speedy decision. In many cases, especially with conifers, which are rather difficult to distinguish, a knowledge of the locality from which the specimen comes is at once decisive. Thus, northern white cedar, and bald cypress, and the cedar of the Pacific will be identified, even without the somewhat indefinite criteria given in the key.

KEY TO THE MORE IMPORTANT WOODS OF NORTH AMERICA.

I. NON-POROUS WOODS--Pores not visible or conspicuous on cross-section, even with magnifier. Annual rings distinct by denser (dark colored) bands of summer wood (Fig. 128).

II. RING-POROUS WOODS--Pores numerous, usually visible on cross-section without magnifier. Annual rings distinct by a zone of large pores collected in the spring wood, alternating with the denser summer wood (Fig. 129).

III. DIFFUSE-POROUS WOODS--Pores numerous, usually not plainly visible on cross-section without magnifier. Annual rings distinct by a fine line of denser summer wood cells, often quite indistinct; pores scattered thru annual ring, no zone of collected pores in spring wood (Fig. 130).

NOTE.--The above described three groups are exogenous, i.e., they grow by adding annually wood on their circumference. A fourth group is formed by the endogenous woods, like yuccas and palms, which do not grow by such additions.

I.--NON-POROUS WOODS.

(Includes all coniferous woods.)

A. Resin ducts wanting.[1]

1. No distinct heart-wood.

_a._ Color effect yellowish white; summer wood darker yellowish (under microscope pith ray without tracheids)..........FIRS.

_b._ Color effect reddish (roseate) (under microscope pith ray with tracheids) ................................HEMLOCK.

2. Heart-wood present, color decidedly different in kind from sap-wood.

_a._ Heart-wood light orange red; sap-wood, pale lemon; wood, heavy and hard .........................................YEW.

_b._ Heartwood purplish to brownish red; sap-wood yellowish white; wood soft to medium hard, light, usually with aromatic odor, ...................................RED CEDAR.

_c._ Heart-wood maroon to terra cotta or deep brownish red; sap-wood light orange to dark amber, very soft and light, no odor; pith rays very distinct, specially pronounced on radial section ..................................REDWOOD.

3. Heart-wood present, color only different in shade from sap-wood, dingy-yellowish brown.

_a._ Odorless and tasteless ........................BALD CYPRESS.

_b._ Wood with mild resinous odor, but tasteless ....WHITE CEDAR.

_c._ Wood with strong resinous odor and peppery taste when freshly cut, ................................INCENSE CEDAR.

B. Resin ducts present. 1. No distinct heartwood; color white, resin ducts very small, not numerous ............................................SPRUCE.

2. Distinct heart-wood present.

_a._ Resin ducts numerous, evenly scattered thru the ring.

_a.'_ Transition from spring wood to summer wood gradual; annual ring distinguished by a fine line of dense summer-wood cells; color, white to yellowish red; wood soft and light .......................SOFT PINES.[2]

_b.'_ Transition from spring wood to summer wood more or less abrupt; broad bands of dark-colored summer wood; color from light to deep orange; wood medium hard and heavy ............................HARD PINES.[2]

_b._ Resin ducts not numerous nor evenly distributed.

_a'._ Color of heart-wood orange-reddish, sap-wood yellowish (same as hard pine); resin ducts frequently combined in groups of 8 to 30, forming lines on the cross-section (tracheids with spirals), ..............DOUGLAS SPRUCE.

_b'._ Color of heart-wood light russet brown; of sap-wood yellowish brown; resin ducts very few, irregularly scattered (tracheids without spirals) ........TAMARACK.

[Footnote 1: Soft and hard pines are arbitrary distinctions and the two not distinguishable at the limit.]

[Footnote 2: To discover the resin ducts a very smooth surface is necessary, since resin ducts are frequently seen only with difficulty, appearing on the cross-section as fine whiter or darker spots normally scattered singly, rarely in groups, usually in the summer wood of the annual ring. They are often much more easily seen on radial, and still more so on tangential sections, appearing there as fine lines or dots of open structure of different color or as indentations or pin scratches in a longitudinal direction.]

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ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR DISTINCTIONS IN THE GROUP.

Spruce is hardly distinguishable from fir, except by the existence of the resin ducts, and microscopically by the presence of tracheids in the medullary rays. Spruce may also be confounded with soft pine, except for the heart-wood color of the latter and the larger, more frequent, and more readily visible resin ducts.

In the lumber yard, hemlock is usually recognized by color and the silvery character of its surface. Western hemlocks partake of this last character to a less degree.

Microscopically the white pine can be distinguished by having usually only one large pit, while spruce shows three to five very small pits in the parenchyma cells of the pith ray communicating with the tracheid.

The distinction of the pines is possible only by microscopic examination. The following distinctive features may assist in recognizing, when in the log or lumber pile, those usually found in the market:

The light, straw color, combined with great lightness and softness, distinguishes the white pines (white pine and sugar pine) from the hard pines (all others in the market), which may also be recognized by the gradual change of spring wood into summer wood. This change in hard pines is abrupt, making the summer wood appear as a sharply defined and more or less broad band.

The Norway pine, which may be confounded with the shortleaf pine, can be distinguished by being much lighter and softer. It may also, but more rarely, be confounded with heavier white pine, but for the sharper definition of the annual ring, weight, and hardness.

The longleaf pine is strikingly heavy, hard, and resinous, and usually very regular and narrow ringed, showing little sap-wood, and differing in this respect from the shortleaf pine and loblolly pine, which usually have wider rings and more sap-wood, the latter excelling in that respect.

The following convenient and useful classification of pines into four groups, proposed by Dr. H. Mayr, is based on the appearance of the pith ray as seen in a radial section of the spring wood of any ring:

Section I. Walls of the tracheids of the pith ray with dentate projections.

_a._ One to two large, simple pits to each tracheid on the radial walls of the cells of the pith ray.--Group 1. Represented in this country only by _P. resinosa_.

_b._ Three to six simple pits to each tracheid, on the walls of the cells of the pith ray.--Group 2. _P. taeda_, _palustris_, etc., including most of our "hard" and "yellow" pines.

Section II. Walls of tracheids of pith ray smooth, without dentate projections.

_a._ One or two large pits to each tracheid on the radial walls of each cell of the pith ray.--Group 3. _P. strobus, lambertiana_, and other true white pines.

_b._ Three to six small pits on the radial walls of each cell of the pith ray. Group 4. _P. parryana_, and other nut pines, including also _P. balfouriana_.

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II.--RING-POROUS WOODS.

(Some of Group D and cedar elm imperfectly ring-porous.)

A. Pores in the summer wood minute, scattered singly or in groups, or in short broken lines, the course of which is never radial.

1. Pith rays minute, scarcely distinct.

_a._ Wood heavy and hard; pores in the summer wood not in clusters.

_a.'_ Color of radial section not yellow.................ASH.

_b.'_ Color of radial section light yellow; by which, together with its hardness and weight, this species is easily recognized, ............OSAGE ORANGE.

_b._ Wood light and soft; pores in the summer wood in clusters of 10 to 30 .......................................CATALPA.

2. Pith rays very fine, yet distinct; pores in summer wood usually single or in short lines; color of heart-wood reddish brown; of sap-wood yellowish white; peculiar odor on fresh section .....................................SASSAFRAS.

3. Pith rays fine, but distinct.

_a._ Very heavy and hard; heart-wood yellowish brown. BLACK LOCUST.

_b._ Heavy; medium hard to hard.

_a.'_ Pores in summer wood very minute, usually in small clusters of 3 to 8; heart-wood light orange brown. RED MULBERRY.

_b.'_ Pores in summer wood small to minute, usually isolated; heart-wood cherry red ..........COFFEE TREE.

4. Pith rays fine but very conspicuous, even without magnifier. Color of heart-wood red; of sap-wood pale lemon ...HONEY LOCUST.

B. Pores of summer wood minute or small, in concentric wavy and sometimes branching lines, appearing as finely-feathered hatchings on tangential section.

1. Pith rays fine, but very distinct; color greenish white. Heart-wood absent or imperfectly developed ...........HACKBERRY.

2. Pith rays indistinct; color of heart-wood reddish brown; sap-wood grayish to reddish white .........................ELMS.

C. Pores of summer wood arranged in radial branching lines (when very crowded radial arrangement somewhat obscured).

1. Pith rays very minute, hardly visible .................CHESTNUT.

2. Pith rays very broad and conspicuous .......................OAK.

D. Pores of summer wood mostly but little smaller than those of the spring wood, isolated and scattered; very heavy and hard woods. The pores of the spring wood sometimes form but an imperfect zone. (Some diffuse-porous woods of groups A and B may seem to belong here.)

1. Fine concentric lines (not of pores) as distinct, or nearly so, as the very fine pith rays; outer summer wood with a tinge of red; heart-wood light reddish brown ....................HICKORY.

2. Fine concentric lines, much finer than the pith rays; no reddish tinge in summer wood; sap-wood white; heart-wood blackish .............................................PERSIMMON.

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ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR DISTINCTIONS IN THE GROUP.

Sassafras and mulberry may be confounded but for the greater weight and hardness and the absence of odor in the mulberry; the radial section of mulberry also shows the pith rays conspicuously.

Honey locust, coffee tree, and black locust are also very similar in appearance. The honey locust stands out by the conspicuousness of the pith rays, especially on radial sections, on account of their height, while the black locust is distinguished by the extremely great weight and hardness, together with its darker brown color.

The ashes, elms, hickories, and oaks may, on casual observation, appear to resemble one another on account of the pronounced zone of porous spring wood. (Figs. 129, 132, 135.) The sharply defined large pith rays of the oak exclude these at once; the wavy lines of pores in the summer wood, appearing as conspicuous finely-feathered hatchings on tangential section, distinguish the elms; while the ashes differ from the hickory by the very conspicuously defined zone of spring wood pores, which in hickory appear more or less interrupted. The reddish hue of the hickory and the more or less brown hue of the ash may also aid in ready recognition. The smooth, radial surface of split hickory will readily separate it from the rest.

The different species of ash may be identified as follows (Fig. 132):

1. Pores in the summer wood more or less united into lines.

_a._ The lines short and broken, occurring mostly near the limit of the ring .......................................WHITE ASH.

_b._ The lines quite long and conspicuous in most parts of the summer wood .......................................GREEN ASH.

2. Pores in the summer wood not united into lines, or rarely so.

_a._ Heart-wood reddish brown and very firm ..............RED ASH.

_b._ Heart-wood grayish brown, and much more porous ....BLACK ASH.

In the oaks, two groups can be readily distinguished by the manner in which the pores are distributed in the summer wood. (Fig. 133.) In the white oaks the pores are very fine and numerous and crowded in the outer part of the summer wood, while in the black or red oaks the pores are larger, few in number, and mostly isolated. The live oaks, as far as structure is concerned, belong to the black oaks, but are much less porous, and are exceedingly heavy and hard.

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III.--DIFFUSE-POROUS WOODS.

(A few indistinctly ring-porous woods of Group II, D, and cedar elm may seem to belong here.)

A. Pores varying in size from large to minute; largest in spring wood, thereby giving sometimes the appearance of a ring-porous arrangement.

1. Heavy and hard; color of heart-wood (especially on longitudinal section) chocolate brown ..........................BLACK WALNUT.

2. Light and soft; color of heart-wood light reddish brown BUTTERNUT.

B. Pores all minute and indistinct; most numerous in spring wood, giving rise to a lighter colored zone or line (especially on longitudinal section), thereby appearing sometimes ring-porous; wood hard, heart-wood vinous reddish; pith rays very fine, but very distinct. (See also the sometimes indistinct ring-porous cedar elm, and occasionally winged elm, which are readily distinguished by the concentric wavy lines of pores in the summer wood) .........CHERRY.

C. Pores minute or indistinct, neither conspicuously larger nor more numerous in the spring wood and evenly distributed.

1. Broad pith rays present.

_a._ All or most pith rays broad, numerous, and crowded, especially on tangential sections, medium heavy and hard, difficult to split. ................................SYCAMORE.

_b._ Only part of the pith rays broad.

_a.'_ Broad pith rays well defined, quite numerous; wood reddish white to reddish ....................BEECH.

_b.'_ Broad pith rays not sharply defined, made up of many small rays, not numerous. Stem furrowed, and therefore the periphery of section, and with it the annual rings sinuous, bending in and out, and the large pith rays generally limited to the furrows or concave portions. Wood white, not reddish .....................BLUE BEECH.

2. No broad pith rays present.

_a._ Pith rays small to very small, but quite distinct.

_a.'_ Wood hard.

_a."_ Color reddish white, with dark reddish tinge in outer summer wood ...........................MAPLE.

_b."_ Color white, without reddish tinge ...........HOLLY.

_b.'_ Wood soft to very soft.

_a."_ Pores crowded, occupying nearly all the space between pith rays.

_a.'"_ Color yellowish white, often with a greenish tinge in heart-wood ........................TULIP POPLAR. CUCUMBER TREE.

_b.'"_ Color of sap-wood grayish, of heart-wood light to dark reddish brown ......................SWEET GUM.

_b."_ Pores not crowded, occupying not over one-third the space between pith rays; heart-wood brownish white to very light brown .........................BASSWOOD.

_b._ Pith rays scarcely distinct, yet if viewed with ordinary magnifier, plainly visible.

_a.'_ Pores indistinct to the naked eye.

_a."_ Color uniform pale yellow; pith rays not conspicuous even on the radial section .....BUCKEYE.

_b."_ Sap-wood yellowish gray, heart-wood grayish brown; pith rays conspicuous on the radial section. SOUR GUM.

_b.'_ Pores scarcely distinct, but mostly visible as grayish specks on the cross-section; sap-wood whitish, heart-wood reddish ..............................BIRCH.

D. Pith rays not visible or else indistinct, even if viewed with magnifier.

1. Wood very soft, white, or in shades of brown, usually with a silky luster .................................COTTONWOOD (POPLAR).

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ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR DISTINCTIONS IN THE GROUP.

Cherry and birch are sometimes confounded, the high pith rays on the cherry on radial sections readily distinguishes it; distinct pores on birch and spring wood zone in cherry as well as the darker vinous-brown color of the latter will prove helpful.

Two groups of birches can be readily distinguished, tho specific distinction is not always possible.

1. Pith rays fairly distinct, the pores rather few and not more abundant in the spring wood: wood heavy, usually darker, CHERRY BIRCH and YELLOW BIRCH.

2. Pith rays barely distinct, pores more numerous and commonly forming a more porous spring wood zone; wood of medium weight, CANOE OR PAPER BIRCH.

The species of maple may be distinguished as follows:

1. Most of the pith rays broader than the pores and very conspicuous ........................................SUGAR MAPLE.

2. Pith rays not or rarely broader than the pores, fine but conspicuous.

_a._ Wood heavy and hard, usually of darker reddish color and commonly spotted on cross-section ...............RED MAPLE.

_b._ Wood of medium weight and hardness, usually light colored. SILVER MAPLE.

Red maple is not always safely distinguished from soft maple. In box elder the pores are finer and more numerous than in soft maple. The various species of elm may be distinguished as follows:

1. Pores of spring wood form a broad band of several rows; easy splitting, dark brown heart ............................RED ELM.

2. Pores of spring wood usually in a single row, or nearly so.

_a._ Pores of spring wood large, conspicuously so WHITE ELM.

_b._ Pores of spring wood small to minute.

_a.'_ Lines of pores in summer wood fine, not as wide as the intermediate spaces, giving rise to very compact grain ROCK ELM.

_b.'_ Lines of pores broad, commonly as wide as the intermediate spaces .........................WINGED ELM.

_c._ Pores in spring wood indistinct, and therefore hardly a ring-porous wood .................................CEDAR ELM.

INDEX.

_Abies grandis_, 96.

_Acer dasycarpum_, 172.

_Acer macrophyllum_, 170.

_Acer rubrum_, 174.

_Acer saccharinum_, 172.

_Acer saccharum_, 176.

_Agaricus melleus_, 236.

_Agarics_, 234, 236.

Alburnum, 17.

Ambrosia beetles, 242.

Angiosperms, 9.

Animal enemies, 239.

Arborvitae, Giant, 104.

Ash, 182-191, 296.

Ash, Black, 182, 298.

Ash, Blue, 186.

Ash, Hoop, 182.

Ash, Oregon, 184.

Ash, Red, 188, 298.

Ash, White, 25, 190, 298.

Bamboo, 10, 11.

Bark, 10, 13, 14.

Bark borers, 243.

Basswood, 14, 178, 301.

Bast, 13, 15, 16, 20.

Beech, 134, 300.

Beech, Blue, 124, 300.

Beech, Water, 124.

Beech, Water, 162.

Bees, carpenter, 246.

Beetles, 241-246.

_Betula lenta_, 130.

_Betula lutea_, 132.

_Betula nigra_, 128.

_Betula papyrifera_, 126.

Big Tree, 98, 208, 209, 220.

Birch, Black, 130.

Birch, Canoe, 126.

Birch, Cherry, 130.

Birch, Gray, 132.

Birch, Mahogany, 130.

Birch, Paper, 126.

Birch, Red, 128.

Birch, River, 128.

Birch, Sweet, 130.

Birch, White, 126.

Birch, Yellow, 132.

Bird's eye maple, 36.

Bluing, 234.

Bole, 211, 218.

Borers, 243-246.

Bowing, 47.

Branches, 37, 218, 226, 286.

Brittleness, 53.

Broad-leaved trees. See Trees, Broad-leaved.

Browsing, 240.

Buckeye, 301.

Bud, 14, 16, 36.

Buds, Adventitious, 36, 37.

Bullnut, 118.

_Buprestid_, 243.

Burl, 35.

Butternut, 144, 300.

Button Ball, 162.

Buttonwood, 162.

Calico poplar, 246.

Cambium, 10, 13, 14, 15, 16, 22, 237.

Canopy, 204, 211, 212.

Carpenter worms, 245.

Carpenter bees, 246.

_Carpinus caroliniana_, 124.

Catalpa, 296.

_Castanea dentata_, 136.

Case-hardening, 48.

_Carya tomentosa_, 118.

_Carya porcina_, 122.

_Carya alba_, 120.

Cedar, Canoe, 104.

Cedar Incense, 295.

Cedar, Oregon, 108.

Cedar, Port Orford, 108.

Cedar, Red, 110, 223, 295.

Cedar, Western Red, 104, 206, 207.

Cedar, White, 106, 295.

Cedar, White, 108.

Cells, Wood, 15, 19, 20, 21, 24, 26, 41, 42.

Cells, Fibrous, 28.

Cellulose, 15.

_Cerambycid_, 243.

_Chamaecyparis lawsoniana_, 108.

_Chamaecyparis thyordes_, 106.

Checks, 43, 47, 232.

Cherry, Wild Black, 164, 300.

Chestnut, 136, 298.

Cleaning, 218, 286.

Cleavability of wood, 41, 53.

Coffee Tree, 297.

Color of wood, 18.

Cold, 214, 216.

_Coleoptera_, 241.

Colors of woods, 17, 18, 290.

Columbian timber beetle, 245.

Comb-grain, 54.

Composition of forest, 197-210, 223.

Compression, 51, 52.

Conch, 235.

Cones, Annual, 19.

Conifers, 9, 10, 12, 24-26, 29, 30, 48, 58-111, 205, 220, 237, 251.

Conservation of forests, 262.

Coppice, 220, 278, 279.

Cork, 13, 19.

Cortex, 13, 15.

_Corthylus columbianus_, 245.

Cottonwood, 301.

Cover, 211.

Crop, The Forest, 274.

Crown, 211, 227.

Cucumber Tree, 156, 301.

_Curculionid_, 243.

Cypress, Bald, 102, 215, 295.

Cypress, Lawson, 108.

Decay, 235.

Deciduous trees, 10.

Dicotoledons, 9, 10.

Differentiation of cells, 16.

Diffuse-porous. See wood, diffuse-porous.

Distribution of species, 218.

Distribution of forests, 197-210.

Drouth, 213, 231.

Dry-rot, 234, 238.

Duff, 224, 251.

Duramen, 17.

Elasticity of wood, 41, 53.

Elm, 152-155, 298.

Elm, American, 154.

Elm, Cedar, 303.

Elm, Cliff, 152.

Elm, Cork, 152.

Elm, Hickory, 152.

Elm, Red, 302.

Elm, Rock, 152, 303.

Elm, Slippery, 14.

Elm, Water, 154.

Elm, White, 152.

Elm, White, 154, 302.

Elm, Winged, 303.

Endogens, 10, 17. See Monocotoledons.

Enemies of the Forest, 229-249.

Engraver beetles, 241.

Entomology, Bureau of, 247.

Epidermis, 13, 15.

Erosion, 273.

Evaporation, 42, 47.

Evergreens, 10.

Exotics, 227.

Exogens, 12, 16.

_Fagus americana_, 134.

_Fagus atropunicea_, 134.

_Fagus ferruginea_, 134.

_Fagus grandifolia_, 134.

Figure, 37.

Fir, 96, 294.

Fir, Douglas, 94.

Fir, Grand, 96.

Fir, Lowland, 96.

Fir, Red, 94, 206, 207.

Fir, Silver, 96.

Fir, White, 96.

Fire, 232, 251-258.

Fire lanes, 257.

Fire losses, 253.

Fire notice, 258.

Fire trenches, 256.

Fire Wardens, 257.

Fires, Causes of, 252.

Fires, Control of, 256-258.

Fires, Crown, 255.

Fires, Description of, 254-256.

Fires, Fear of, 261.

Fires, Opportunities for, 251.

Fires, Statistics of, 253.

Fires, Surface, 252.

Floor, Forest, 213, 224.

Forest, Abundance of, 260.

Forest, Appalachian, 204.

Forest, Atlantic, 197.

Forest, Broadleaf, 202.

Forest, Eastern, 197-204.

Forest, Enemies of, 229-249.

Forest, Exhaustion of, 241-270.

Forest, Esthetic use of, 277.

Forest, Fear of, 260.

Forest, Hardwood, 197.

Forest, High, 281.

Forest, Hostility toward, 260.

Forest, Mixed, 204, 213, 214.

Forest, Northern, 197, 216.

Forest, Pacific, 197, 204-208.

Forest, Productive, 274-277.

Forest, Protective, 271-274.

Forest, Puget Sound, 206.

Forest, Regular Seed, 281.

Forest, Rocky Mountain, 197, 204, 205.

Forest, Seed, 297-282.

Forest, Selection, 280-281.

Forest, Southern, 197.

Forest, Subarctic, 209.

Forest, Two-storied Seed, 282.

Forest, Use of, 271-287.

Forest, Utilization of, 271-277.

Forest, Virgin, 280.

Forest, Western, 197.

Forestry, 271-287.

Forests, Composition of North American, 197.

Forests, National, 228.

Forests and agriculture, 258, 277.

Forest conditions, 211-228, 278.

Forest conservation, 262.

Forest cover, 204, 211, 212, 224.

Forest crop, 274, 276.

Forest devastation, 261.

Forest fires, 251-258, 261.

Forest floor, 213, 224.

Forest improvement, 284-286.

Forest map, 198.

Forest organism, The, Chapter V., pp. 211-228.

Forest ownership, 262.

Forest planting, 282-284.

Forest preservation, 277-284.

Forest products, 276.

Forest Service, U. S., 262, 264, 275.

_Fraxinus americana_, 190.

_Fraxinus nigra_, 182.

_Fraxinus oregona_, 184.

_Fraxinus pennsylvanica_, 188.

_Fraxinus quadrangulata_, 186.

Frost, 232.

Frost-check, 232.

Fungi, 20, 233-239.

Ginko, 12.

Gluing, 54.

Goats, 240.

Grain of wood, 19, 30, 31, 32-37, 53.

Grain, Bird's eye.

Grain, coarse, 32.

Grain, cross, 33, 53.

Grain, curly, 35.

Grain, fine, 32.

Grain, spiral, 33.

Grain, straight, 33, 53.

Grain, twisted, 33.

Grain, wavy, 34.

Grazing, 239.

Group system, 279.

Grubs, 243, 244.

Gum, Black, 180.

Gum, Sour, 180, 301.

Gum, Sweet, 160, 301.

Gymnosperms, 9.

Hackberry, 297.

Hackmatack, 76.

Hardness of wood, 41, 54.

Hardwoods, 12.

Heart-wood, 13, 17, 18, 19, 290.

Hemlock, 90, 295.

Hemlock, Black, 92.

Hemlock, Western, 92, 206.

_Hicoria alba_, 118.

_Hicoria glabra_, 122.

_Hicoria ovata_, 120.

Hickory, 118-123, 298.

Hickory, Big-bud, 118.

Hickory, Black, 118.

Hickory, Shagbark, 120.

Hickory, Shellbark, 120.

Hickory, White-heart, 118.

High Forest, 281.

Holly, 301.

Honeycombing, 48.

Hornbeam, 124.

Horn-tails, 246.

Hygroscopicity of wood, 41.

_Hymenomycetes_, 234.

Ice, 232.

Ichneumon fly, 247.

Identification of woods, 289-303.

Improvement of forests, 284-286.

Inflammability of bark, 14, 251.

Insects, 240-248.

Insects, parasitic, 247.

Insects, predaceous, 247.

Intolerance, 216, 219, 221.

Iron-wood, 124.

_Juglans cinerea_, 114.

_Juglans nigra_, 116.

_Juniperus virginiana_, 110.

Key for the distinction of woods, 292-303.

King-nut, 118.

Knot, 35, 37, 38.

Larch, 76.

Larch, Western, 78.

_Larix americana_, 76.

_Larix laricina_, 76.

_Larix occidentales_, 78.

Leaves, 14, 216.

Lenticels, 14.

_Lepidoptera_, 241.

Light, 216-218.

Lightning, 231, 251.

Lignin, 16.

Linden, 178.

_Liquidambar styraciflua_, 160.

_Liriodendron tulipifera_, 158.

Localized Selection system, 281.

Locust, 166.

Locust, Black, 166, 296.

Locust, Honey, 166, 297.

Locust, Yellow, 166.

Long-bodied trunk, 225.

Lumber consumption, 264.

Lumber, 9, 10.

Lumber prices, 267, 268.

Lumber production, 265-267.

Lumber, substitutes for, 264.

Lumbering, conservative, 274, 276.

Lumbering, destructive, 251, 258-263.

Lumberman, 260.

_Magnolia acuminata_, 156.

Magnolia, Mountain, 156.

Mahogany, 168.

Maple, 170-177, 301.

Maple, Hard, 25, 176.

Maple, Large Leaved, 170.

Maple, Oregon, 170, 207.

Maple, Red, 174, 302.

Maple, Rock, 25, 176.

Maple, Silver, 172, 302.

Maple, Soft, 172.

Maple, Sugar, 176.

Maple, White, 170.

Maple, White, 172.

Medullary rays. See Rays.

Medullary Sheath. See Sheath.

_Merulius lachrymans_, 234, 238.

Meteorological enemies, 229-233.

Mice, 237.

Microscope, 14, 24-31, 290.

Mine, Forest treated as, 261, 274.

Mockernut, 118.

Moisture, 213.

Moisture in wood, 41, 52.

Monocotoledons, 9, 10, 17. See also Endogens.

Mountain, 216.

Mulberry, Red, 297.

Mushroom, 236.

Mutual aid, 224.

Nailing, 53.

Needle-leaf trees, 12.

Non-porous. See Wood, non-porous.

North Woods, 197, 218.

Nurse, 218, 219.

_Nyssa sylvatica_, 180.

Oak, 138-151, 298.

Oak, Basket, 142.

Oak, Black, 140.

Oak, Bur, 144.

Oak, Cow, 142.

Oak, Live, 201.

Oak, Mossy-cup, 144.

Oak, Over-cup, 144.

Oak, Post, 148.

Oak, Red, 138.

Oak, Stave, 150.

Oak, White, 150.

Oak, White (Western), 146.

Oak, Yellow bark, 140.

Odors of wood, 18.

Osage Orange, 296.

Organism, Forest, 211.

_Padus serotina_, 164.

Palm, 9, 17.

Paper pulp, 263.

Parasites, 233.

Parenchyma, 23, 28.

Pecky cypress, 234.

Peggy cypress, 234.

Pepperidge, 180.

Persimmon, 298.

Phanerogamia, 9.

Phloem, 13.

_Picea alba_, 80.

_Picea canadensis_, 80.

_Picea engelmanni_, 86.

_Picea mariana_, 84.

_Picea nigra_, 84.

_Picea rubens_, 82.

_Picea sitchensis_, 88.

Pigeon Horn-tail, 247.

Pignut, 122.

Pines, 58-75, 295.

Pine, Bull, 66, 205, 282.

Pine, Cuban, 74.

Pine, Georgia, 68.

Pine, Loblolly, 72.

Pine, Long-leaf, 68, 200.

Pine, Norway, 64.

Pine, Old Field, 72.

Pine, Oregon, 94.

Pine, Red, 64.

Pine, Short-leaf, 70.

Pine, Slash, 74.

Pine, Sugar, 62.

Pine, Western White, 60.

Pine, Western Yellow, 66.

Pine, Weymouth, 58.

Pine, White, 24, 58, 199.

Pine, Yellow, 70.

Pine sawyers, 244.

_Pinus caribaea_, 74.

_Pinus echinata_, 70.

_Pinus heterophylla_, 74.

_Pinus lambertiana_, 62.

_Pinus monticola_, 60.

_Pinus palustris_, 68.

_Pinus ponderosa_, 66.

_Pinus resinosa_, 64.

_Pinus strobus_, 58.

_Pinus taeda_, 72.

Pith, 10, 13, 15, 16, 23, 32, 39.

Pith ray. See Ray, medullary.

Pits, 26, 292.

Planting, 282-284.

_Platanus occidentalis_, 162.

Poles, 225.

Polypores, 234

_Polyporus annosus_, 237.

_Polyporus sulphureus_, 236.

Poplar, yellow, 158, 221, 245, 246, 301.

Pores, 23, 28, 29, 291.

Powder-post beetles, 244.

Preservation of forests, 277-284.

Prices of lumber, 267, 268.

Primary growth, 17, 22.

Procambium strands, 16.

Protection against fungi, 239.

Protection against insects, 247.

Properties of wood, Chap II., p. 41.

Protoplasm, 14, 16, 23, 41.

Pruning of branches, 286.

_Prunus serotina_, 164.

_Pseudotsuga mucronata_, 94.

_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_, 94.

Quartering a log, 45.

Quartered oak, 22.

_Quercus alba_, 150.

_Quercus garryana_, 146.

_Quercus macrocarpa_, 144.

_Quercus michauxii_, 142.

_Quercus minor_, 148.

_Quercus obtusiloba_, 148.

_Quercus rubra_, 138.

_Quercus stellata_, 148.

_Quercus tinctoria_, 140.

_Quercus velutina_, 140.

Rainfall, effect on forest, 205, 213.

Rays, medullary, 15, 16, 17, 21, 22, 23, 26, 30, 31, 37, 44, 53, 291.

Red rot, 234.

Redwood, 100, 207, 208, 222, 295.

Regularity of cells, 24.

Reproduction, 220.

Reserve sprout method, 279.

Resin ducts, 26, 291.

Rhizomorphs, 236.

Rind, 13.

Ring-porous. See Wood, ring-porous.

Rings, Annual, 9, 18, 19, 21, 23, 44, 226, 290.

Rings, False, 19, 231.

_Robinia pseudacacia_, 166.

Rodents, 239.

Roots, 211, 224.

Rotation period, 279.

Rotting, 234.

_Salix nigra_, 112.

Sand dunes, 230, 231.

Saplings, 225, 226.

Saprophytes, 233.

Sap-wood, 13, 17, 18, 41, 42, 290.

Sassafras, 296.

Sawyers, Pine, 244.

Secondary growth, 17.

Section, cross, 21, 22, 29. See also Section, transverse.

Section, radial, 19, 22, 26, 30, 31.

Section, tangential, 19, 22, 26, 30, 31.

Section, transverse, 19, 24, 29, 30.

Seasoning, 42.

Sections, transverse, radial and tangential, 12.

Seed forests, 279-282.

Seeding from the side, 279.

Seedlings, 225, 226.

Seeds, 220-223, 226.

Sequoia, 98.

Sequoia, 100.

Sequoia, Giant, 98.

_Sequoia gigantea_, 98.

_Sequoia sempervirens_, 100.

_Sequoia washingtoniana_, 98.

Settler, 258.

Shake, 47, 232, 233.

Shearing strength, 52.

Sheep, 240.

Shelf fungus, 234, 236.

Short-bodied trunk, 225, 226.

Shrinkage of wood, 41, 42-47.

Silver flakes, 22. See Rays, Medullary.

Silvical characteristics, 211.

Silvicultural systems, 278-284.

Slash, 229, 251, 257.

Slash-grain, 54.

Snow, 232.

Slash-sawing, 45, 47.

Softwoods, 12.

Soil, 211, 213.

Specific gravity. See Weight.

Splint-wood, 17.

Splitting. See Cleavability.

Spores, 234.

Spring-wood, 20, 21, 24, 30, 32, 44, 53, 54, 291.

Sprouts, 220, 222.

Spruce, 80-89, 295.

Spruce, Black, 84.

Spruce, Douglas, 94, 296.

Spruce, Engelmann's, 86.

Spruce, Red, 82, 213.

Spruce, Sitka, 88.

Spruce, Tideland, 88.

Spruce, Western White, 86.

Spruce, White, 80.

Stand, mixed, 213, 223.

Stand, pure, 213, 223.

Standards, 225, 226.

Steamboats, 246.

Stem, diagram of cross section, Fig. 4, p. 13, fig. 5, p. 15, 211.

Strength of wood, 41, 51-53.

Strip system, 279.

Structure of wood, 9-40, 29, 30, 32.

Struggle for existence, 224, 226, 227.

Summer-wood, 20, 21, 24, 30, 32, 44, 53, 54, 291.

_Swietenia mahagoni_, 168.

Sycamore, 22, 162, 300.

Tamarack, 76, 296.

Tamarack, Western, 78.

Taxes on forests, 261.

_Taxodium distichum_, 102.

Tear fungus, 234, 238.

Temperature, 214.

Tension, 51, 52.

Texture of wood, 32.

_Thuja gigantea_, 104.

_Thuja plicata_, 104.

_Tilia americana_, 178.

Timber beetles, 242, 245.

Timber supply of U. S., 264-269.

Timber trees, 10.

Timber worms, 244.

Tissue, 16.

Toadstools, 234.

Tolerance, 216, 219.

Toughness of wood, 41, 54.

Tracheae, 23, 28.

Tracheid, 28, 30, 290, 292.

_Trametes pini_, 235.

_Trametes radiciperda_, 237.

Tree, parts of, 211.

Treeless area, 197, 203.

Trees, Broad-leaved, 9, 10, 28, 29.

Trees, deciduous, 10.

Trunk, 13, 211. Long-bodied, 225. Short-bodied, 225.

_Tsuga canadensis_, 90.

_Tsuga heterophylla_, 92.

Tulip Tree, 158. See Poplar Yellow

Tupelo, 180.

Turpentine, 263.

Two-storied Seed Forest, 282.

_Ulmus americana_, 154.

_Ulmus racemosa_, 152.

_Ulmus thomasi_, 152.

Utilization of forests, 271-277.

Vegetable enemies, 233-239.

Veneer, 10, 35.

Vessels, 23, 28, 29.

Veterans, 225.

Walnut, Black, 116, 300.

Walnut, White, 114.

Warping, 45-47.

Waste, Avoidance of, 274.

Waste in lumbering, 263.

Water, 41, 42, 226, 231.

Weeds, Forest, 225.

Weight of wood, 41, 49-51.

Whitewood, 158.

Wilderness, Conquest of, 258.

Willow, Black, 112.

Wind, 229, 252, 253.

Windfalls, 229.

Wood, Diffuse-porous, 23, 30, 300-303.

Wood, Non-porous, 24-26, 58-111, 294-296.

Wood, Primary, 17.

Wood, Properties of, Chap. II., 41-56.

Wood, Ring-porous, 23, 29, 296-299.

Wood, Spring, 20, 21, 24, 30, 32, 44, 53, 54, 291.

Wood, Structure of, 9-40.

Wood, secondary, 17.

Wood, summer, 20, 21, 24, 30, 32, 44, 53, 54, 291.

Wood borers, 243.

Wood cells. See Cells.

Wood. See Sap-wood, Heart wood.

Wood dyes, 18.

Wood fiber, 28.

Woods, Color of, 17, 18, 290.

Woods, The distinguishing of, 289-303.

Working, 47.

Worm-holes, 243.

Worms, carpenter, 245.

Worms, Timber, 244.

Wound parasites, 234.

Yew, 295.

Yield, 275.

Yucca, 10.

Books on the Manual Arts

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION IN WOOD. By William Noyes.

A book full of charm and distinction and the first to give due consideration to the esthetic side of wood-working. It is intended to give to beginners practice in designing simple projects in wood and an opportunity to acquire skill in handling tools. The book illustrates a series of projects and gives suggestions for other similar projects together with information regarding tools and processes for making. A pleasing volume abundantly and beautifully illustrated.

HANDWORK IN WOOD. By William Noyes.

A handbook for teachers and a textbook for normal school and college students. A comprehensive and scholarly treatise, covering logging, saw-milling, seasoning and measuring, hand tools, wood fastenings, equipment and care of the shop, the common joints, types of wood structures, principles of joinery, and wood finishing. 304 illustrations--excellent pen drawings and many photographs.

WOOD AND FOREST. By William Noyes.

A companion volume to "Handwork in Wood," by the same author. Especially adapted as a reference book for teachers of woodworking. Not too difficult for use as a textbook for normal school and college students. Treats of wood, distribution of American forests, life of the forest, enemies of the forest, destruction, conservation and uses of the forest, with a key to the common woods by Filibert Roth. Describes 67 principal species of wood with maps of the habitat, leaf drawings, life size photographs and microphotographs of sections. Contains a general bibliography of books and articles on wood and forest. Profusely illustrated with photographs from the United States forest service and with pen and ink drawings by Anna Gausmann Noyes and photographs by the author. 309 pages.

WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS. By Ira S. Griffith.

A remarkably simple treatment of elementary woodworking for students in the seventh and eighth grades. It deals with tools, processes and materials and includes only such subject matter as should be taught to grammar grade students. It meets the requirements of students working in large classes and devoting the minimum of time to manual training. A practical and unusually attractive textbook and one that can be used with any course of models and in any order.

BEGINNING WOODWORK, At Home and in School. By Clinton S. VanDeusen.

A full and clear description in detail of the fundamental processes of elementary benchwork in wood. This description is given thru directions for making a few simple, useful articles, suitable either for school or home problems. The book contains more than one hundred original sketches and ten working drawings.

PROBLEMS IN FARM WOODWORK. By Samuel A. Blackburn.

A book of working drawings of 100 practical problems relating to agriculture and farm life. Especially valuable to the student or teacher of agriculture or manual arts in rural schools and in high schools in agricultural communities, and to the boy on the farm. There are 60 full-page plates of working drawings, each accompanied by a page or more of text treating of "Purpose," "Material," "Bill of Stock," "Tools," "Directions," and "Assembly." A wonderfully practical book.

PROBLEMS IN FURNITURE MAKING. By Fred D. Crawshaw.

This book, revised and enlarged, consists of 43 plates of working drawings suitable for use in grammar and high schools, and 36 pages of text, including chapters on design, construction and finishes, and notes on the problems.

FURNITURE DESIGN FOR SCHOOLS AND SHOPS. By Fred D. Crawshaw.

A manual on furniture design. A book that will stimulate and encourage designing and initiation on the part of the student. It contains a collection of plates showing perspective drawings of typical designs, representing particular types of furniture. Each perspective is accompanied by suggestions for rearrangement and the modeling of parts. The text discusses and illustrates principles of design as applied to furniture. A practical and helpful book that should be in the hands of every teacher of cabinet making and designing.

PROBLEMS IN WOODWORKING. By M. W. Murray.

A convenient collection of good problems consisting of forty plates of working drawings, of problems in benchwork that have been successfully worked out by boys in grades seven to nine inclusive.

SHOP PROBLEMS. (On Tracing Paper). By Albert F. Siepert.

A collection of working drawings of a large variety of projects printed on tracing paper and ready for blue printing. The projects have all been worked out in manual arts classes and have proved their value from the standpoint of design, construction, use, human interest, etc. They are of convenient size, 6x9-inch, and are enclosed in a portfolio. To the teacher, in search of additional projects to supplement and enrich his course these tracings are worth far more than the price asked. Published in series. Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7.

WORKSHOP NOTE-BOOK--WOODWORKING. By George G. Greene.

A small-size textbook and notebook combined. It furnishes a few general and extremely important directions about tools and processes; and provides space for additional notes and working drawings of exercises and articles which the pupil is to construct. It is essentially a collection of helps, ideas, hints, suggestions, questions, facts, illustrations, etc., which have been prepared by a practical teacher to meet a real need in his own shop. The notebook is full of suggestions; shows a keen insight into subject matter and teaching methods and is an effective teaching tool.

PROBLEMS IN WOOD-TURNING. By Fred D. Crawshaw.

In the first place this is a book of problems--25 plates covering spindle, face-plate, and chuck turning. In the second place it is a textbook on the science and art of wood-turning illustrated by fifty pen sketches. It gives the mathematical basis for the cuts used in turning. In the third place it is a helpful discussion of the principles of design as applied to objects turned in wood. It is a clear, practical and suggestive book on wood-turning.

WOOD PATTERN-MAKING. By Horace T. Purfield.

This book was written expressly for use as a textbook for high school, trade school, technical school, and engineering college students. It is a revised, enlarged, and newly illustrated edition.

CORRELATED COURSES IN WOODWORK AND MECHANICAL DRAWING. By Ira S. Griffith.

This book is designed to meet the every-day need of the teacher of woodworking and mechanical drawing for reliable information concerning organization of courses, subject matter and methods of teaching. It covers classification and arrangement of tool operations for grades, 7, 8, 9, and 10, shop organization, allotment of time design, shop excursions, stock bills, cost of material, records, shop conduct, the lesson, maintenance, equipment, and lesson outlines for grammar and high schools. It is based on sound pedagogy, thoro technical knowledge and successful teaching experience. It is practical.

ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. By Ira S. Griffith.

A textbook written especially for the use of grammar and high school students. A clear and comprehensive treatment of woodworking tools, materials, and processes, to supplement, but not to take the place of the instruction given by the teacher. The book does not contain a course of models; it may be used with any course. It is illustrated with photographs and numerous pen drawings.

PROJECTS FOR BEGINNING WOODWORK AND MECHANICAL DRAWING. By Ira S. Griffith.

A work book for the use of students in grammar grade classes. It consists of working drawings and working directions. The projects are such as have proven of exceptional service where woodworking and mechanical drawing are taught in a thoro, systematic manner in the seventh and eighth grades. The aim has been to provide successful rather than unique problems. The 50 projects in the book were selected and organized with the constant aim of securing the highest educational results. The book is especially suited for use in connection with "Essentials of Woodworking," by the same author.

FURNITURE MAKING. (Advanced Projects in Woodwork.) By Ira S. Griffith.

This book is similar to "Projects for Beginning Woodwork and Mechanical Drawing," but is suited to high school needs. It consists of fifty plates of problems and accompanying notes. It is essentially a collection of problems in furniture making selected or designed with reference to school use. On the plate with each working drawing is a good perspective sketch of the completed object. In draftsmanship and refinement of design these problems are of superior quality. It is in every respect an excellent collection.

PROBLEMS IN MECHANICAL DRAWING. By Charles A. Bennett.

This book consists of 80 plates and a few explanatory notes. Its purpose is to furnish teachers of classes beginning mechanical drawing with a large number of simple, practical problems. These have been selected with reference to the formation of good habits in technique, the interest of the pupils, and the subjects generally included in a grammar and first-year high school course. Each problem given is unsolved and therefore in proper form to hand to the pupil for solution.

MECHANICAL DRAWING PROBLEMS. By Edward Berg and Emil F. Kronquist.

A direct and concise text adapted for high school students beginning mechanical drawing. It covers two year's work and contains 128 full-page plates--excellent examples of draftsmanship. Text accompanies each plate, giving necessary facts and helpful hints wherever needed. The underlying principles of drafting are thoroly covered and the practical applications, which are abundant, have been most skilfully chosen and admirably presented. The plates tell what to do, almost at a glance, yet prevent mere copy work. Each problem tests the ability of the student to think and execute graphically and unconsciously develops an excellent technique.

MECHANICAL DRAFTING. By W. H. Miller.

(Revised edition). A textbook for advanced high school students which presents drafting room practice in practical textbook form. It is so written that it may be used with any course of exercises or problems and supplements the instruction of the teacher in such a way as to reduce lecture work to a minimum. It is a direct and simple treatment of mechanical drafting, giving due consideration to the needs of the student, the beginning draftsman and the requirements of the best teaching methods. It is complete, yet condensed and is well adapted for handbook use by the student and draftsman. It is well illustrated and is bound in flexible binding, pocket size. A thoroughly practical, modern textbook.

GRAMMAR GRADE PROBLEMS IN MECHANICAL DRAWING. By Charles A. Bennett.

A remarkably simple and carefully graded treatment of the fundamentals of mechanical drawing for the use of students in the 7th and 8th grades. It combines an abundance of text and simple problems, accompanied by notes and directions. Its use insures the early formation of correct habits of technique and makes possible the development of a standard in grammar grade mechanical drawing parallel with woodworking. Abundantly and well illustrated.

MECHANICAL DRAWING FOR BEGINNERS. By Charles H. Bailey.

A textbook suitable wherever this subject is taught to beginners, in Junior High Schools, High and Continuation Schools. It successfully combines instructions which are minute and complete, with problems, gradually leading the student to learn with little or no other help, the essentials and technique of the work. The matter is condensed but leaves no important points not covered.

PROGRESSIVE STEPS IN ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. By George W. Seaman.

A textbook and practical handbook, describing and illustrating every successive step in drawing of floor plans, elevations and various details for successful dwellings. Numerous plates illustrate details of doors, windows, mouldings, cornices, porches, etc. Architectural orders shown in practical working forms. "Single line sketches" illustrate method of practical designer in planning a house.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING PLATES. By Franklin G. Elwood.

A collection of 15 plates showing the various details included in the plans for frame houses. Names and typical sizes are given and much information helpful to the student or draftsman. One plate shows eleven "Plan Studies," another "How Elevations are Worked Up from Plans and Sections." A wonderfully convenient help in architectural drawing.

SIMPLIFIED MECHANICAL PERSPECTIVE. By Frank Forrest Frederick.

A book of simple problems covering the essentials of mechanical perspective. It is planned for pupils of high school age who have already received some elementary training in mechanical drawing. It is simple, direct and practical.

WOODWORK FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS. By Ira S. Griffith.

The most complete and comprehensive textbook on secondary school woodworking ever published. Treats of Common Woods, Tools and Processes, Woodworking Machines, Joinery, Wood-Turning, Inlaying and Wood Carving, Wood Finishing, Furniture Construction, Pattern-Making. Although written for the student, every teacher of high school or normal school woodwork will find this text a valuable and necessary volume for reference use. It contains 370 pages and 580 special illustrations.

CARPENTRY. By Ira S. Griffith.

A well illustrated textbook for use in vocational schools, trade schools, technical schools, and by apprentices to the trade, presenting the principles of house construction in a clear and fundamental way. It treats of the "everyday" practical problems of the carpenter and house builder from the "laying of foundations" to the completion of the "interior finish." It meets every requirement as a textbook and is also well adapted for reference use. It is well illustrated by photographs taken "on the job."

BOY ACTIVITY PROJECTS. By Samuel A. Blackburn.

A book of full-page plates and accompanying text giving complete directions for making 86 projects of interest to the energetic American boy. The projects are for the school, the home, the playground, the camp, the out-of-doors, and include a complete wireless telegraph apparatus. The plates give every required dimension, and show each project complete and in detail. The text is in reality working directions telling just "how to make," including bills of material, lists of tools required, etc. A thoroly practical and suggestive book for school use and rich in inspiration for the boy in his own home shop.

SEAT WEAVING. By L. Day Perry.

A handbook for teacher or student. Tells how to cane chairs, how to use cane webbing, how to do rush seating, how to do reed and splint weaving, how to make seats of reeds and splints, how to prepare raw materials, how to stain, finish and refinish, etc. Also treats of the use of cane and other seating materials as a decorative element in furniture construction. Well illustrated, practical and authoritative.

FURNITURE UPHOLSTERY FOR SCHOOLS. By Emil A. Johnson.

The only text and reference book on upholstery written for school use. Contains detailed, practical instructions telling how to upholster a variety of articles, also how to re-upholster old furniture and how to do spring-edge upholstery work. Describes necessary tools and materials. Abundantly and beautifully illustrated.

PRACTICAL TYPOGRAPHY. By George E. McClellan.

A remarkable textbook for students of printing. It contains a course of exercises ready to place in the hands of pupils, and explains and illustrates the most approved methods used in correct composition. A valuable feature of the book lies in the fact that in the early stages of the course the pupil sets up in type a description of what he is doing with his hands. It contains 63 exercises, treating of composition from "Correct Spacing" to the "Making up of a Book," and the "Composition of Tables."

ART METALWORK. By Arthur F. Payne.

A textbook written by an expert craftsman and experienced teacher. It treats of the various materials and their production, ores, alloys, commercial forms, etc.; of tools and equipments suitable for the work, the inexpensive equipment of the practical craftsman; and of the correlation of art metalwork with design and other school subjects. It describes in detail all the processes involved in making articles ranging from a watch fob to a silver loving-cup. It gives new methods of construction, new finishes, new problems. It is abundantly and beautifully illustrated, showing work done by students under ordinary school conditions in a manual training shop. The standard book on the subject.

TEACHING THE MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS. By Ira S. Griffith.

A text for normal schools or colleges and a reference for manual and vocational teachers. Presents the philosophy of teaching manual and vocational education in terms of psychology, social science, and economics. It gives the conclusions of Thorndike, Judd, Bagley, Dewey and others, and illustrates them so they serve the teacher as a basis for evaluating the manual and industrial arts. A book of value to the beginning teacher, the experienced supervisor or the educational expert; an exceptional source of information on the theory and practice of its subject.

THE MANUAL ARTS. By Charles A. Bennett.

A treatise on the selection and organization of subject matter in the manual arts and on the methods of teaching. It states what manual arts should be taught in the schools, their place as concerns general and vocational education, principles underlying the making of courses of instruction and methods of teaching, and shows the place of the factory system in industrial schools, etc. Heretofore no book has dealt with the pedagogy of the manual arts in so definite and clear cut a manner. The author has brought together, with ripened judgment, the result of years of experience.

It is especially adapted for normal class and reading circle use and should be read and studied by every teacher or prospective teacher of the manual arts.

EDUCATIONAL TOYS. By Louis C. Petersen.

A comprehensive book on toy-making for the school or home. Shows 57 toys including animals, wheeled toys, stationary toys, moving toys, puzzles, etc., made chiefly from thin wood, with the coping saw and easily constructed in the ordinary school room or in the home. Tells how to make each toy, how to finish and color, about the few simple tools and materials required. Well illustrated with photographs and full-size pattern drawings.

TOY PATTERNS. By Michael C. Dank.

A portfolio of toy patterns. Among them are Animals, Animal Rocking Toys, Wheeled Platform Toys, String Toys, Lever Toys, Freak Toys and Novelties. Each toy is shown complete and each part is also shown full-size. They are designed to be made with the coping saw out of thin wood. Twelve sheets, size 10-1/2" x 14", enclosed in a portfolio with an attractive color design.

BIRD HOUSES BOYS CAN BUILD. By Albert F. Siepert.

A book of rare interest to boys. It is written in the boy spirit and combines the charm of nature with the allurements of continuation work in wood. It illustrates hundreds of bird houses and shows working drawings of various designs, also feeders, shelters, sparrow traps, and other bird accessories. The common house nesting birds are pictured and described with information regarding houses, foods, etc., suitable for each. A pleasing and practical book for wide-awake boys.

MANUAL TRAINING TOYS. FOR THE BOYS' WORKSHOP. By Harris W. Moore.

A popular boys' book that is truly educational. It is a collection of forty-two projects overflowing with "boy" interest and new in the manual training shop. Full-page working drawings show each project in detail and the text gives instructions for making, together with information on tools and tool processes.

KITECRAFT AND KITE TOURNAMENTS. By Charles M. Miller.

An authoritative and comprehensive treatment of kitecraft. The book deals with the construction and flying of all kinds of kites, and the making and using of kite accessories. Also aeroplanes, gliders, propellers, motors, etc. Four chapters are devoted to presenting a detailed description of kite flying tournaments. Abundantly illustrated and attractively bound.

THE CONSTRUCTION AND FLYING OF KITES. By Charles M. Miller.

This contains seven full-page plates of drawings of kites, and fifteen figures--over forty kites shown. Details of construction given; a kite tournament is described. Full of interesting suggestions.

COPING SAW WORK. By Ben W. Johnson.

Contains working drawings and suggestions for teaching a course of work in thin wood that is full of fun for the children, and affords ample means for training in form study, construction, invention and careful work. Has been called "applied mechanics for the fourth grade."

SELECTED SHOP PROBLEMS. By George A. Seaton.

A collection of sixteen problems in woodworking made to meet the needs of busy teachers of manual training. Each problem has been put to the test and has proven satisfactory to the teacher who designed it and to the pupil who made it.

MANUAL TRAINING MAGAZINE.

A magazine of "quality." The professional journal of the teachers of manual, vocational and industrial education. It publishes practical articles on the ways and means of "doing things." It discusses vital problems in teaching the manual arts and presents the best current thought on the development of manual training and vocational education. To the inexperienced teacher, it is valuable in solving numerous problems, and to the experienced teacher, it is a means of keeping abreast of the times. It is ably edited, attractively printed, and well illustrated with photographs and drawings made especially for its pages. Published monthly. $1.50 a year; Canada, $1.80; Foreign, $2.00.

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Manual Arts Press :: Peoria, Illinois

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Transcriber's Note:

Transcriber's Note: 'M', in the context of lumber measurement, means '1000 feet'. From 'Handwork in Wood', Chapter III, page 48. Also (ibid): "There are several methods of measuring lumber. The general rule is to multiply the length in feet by the width and thickness in inches and divide by 12, thus: 1" x 6" x 15' / 12 = 71/2 feet."

In the interests of clarity, some Illustrations have been moved closer to their descriptive text.

Hyphenation and spelling are not uniform throughout this book, e.g., 'sapwood' and 'sap-wood' both occur; '_Columbian Timber-beetle_' and 'Columbian timber beetle' occur in the same paragraph.