Part 1

WOMEN WORKERS IN SEVEN PROFESSIONS

A SURVEY OF THEIR ECONOMIC CONDITIONS AND PROSPECTS

EDITED FOR THE STUDIES COMMITTEE OF THE FABIAN WOMEN'S GROUP

BY

EDITH J. MORLEY

1914

PREFATORY NOTE

The task of collecting and editing the various essays of which this book is comprised, has not been altogether easy. Some literary defects and absence of unity are, by the nature of the scheme, inevitable: we hope these are counterbalanced by the collection of first-hand evidence from those in a position to speak authoritatively of the professions which they follow. _Experientia docet_, and those who desire to investigate the conditions of women's public work in various directions, as well as those who are hesitating in their choice of a career, may like carefully to weigh these opinions formed as a result of personal experience.

For other defects in selection, arrangement, proportion and the like, I am alone responsible. I have, from the first, been conscious that many people were better suited to the editorial task than myself--women with more knowledge of social and economic problems, and, perhaps, with more leisure. But at the moment no one seemed to be available, and I was persuaded to do what I could to carry out the wishes of the Studies Committee of the Fabian Women's Group. If I have in any measure succeeded, it is owing to the generous help and unvarying kindness I have received in all directions. In the first place, I would express my gratitude to the members of the Studies Committee, and more particularly to Mrs Charlotte Wilson, the fount and inspiration of the whole scheme, to Mrs Pember Reeves, and to Mrs Bernard Shaw. My indebtedness to all the contributors for their promptitude, patience, and courtesy, it is impossible to exaggerate. I hope it will not be thought invidious if I say that without Dr Murrell's sub-editorship of the Medical and Nursing Sections, and the unstinted and continual help of Dr O'Brien Harris, the book could not have appeared at all. The latter's paper on "Secondary School Teaching" has had the benefit of criticism and suggestions from one of the most notable Head-Mistresses of her day--Mrs Woodhouse, whose experience of work in the schools of the Girls' Public Day School Trust was kindly placed at the author's disposal. Similarly, some of the details mentioned in the section on "Acting," were kindly supplied by Mrs St John Ervine. Lastly--for it is impossible to mention all who have assisted--I wish to thank Miss Ellen Smith for her unsparing secretarial labours, and Miss M.G. Spencer and Miss Craig, of the Central Bureau for the Employment of Women, for the Table which appears at the end of Section I. This is unique as an exhaustive summary of a mass of information, hitherto not easily accessible to the general public.

EDITH J. MORLEY.

UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, READING, _December_ 1913.

CONTENTS

PREFATORY NOTE. By the Editor

FOREWORDS. ON BEHALF OF THE STUDIES COMMITTEE OF THE FABIAN WOMEN'S GROUP

I. THE TEACHING PROFESSION

I. INTRODUCTION. By EDITH J. MORLEY, Oxford Honour School of English Language and Literature. Professor of English Language, University College, Reading. Fellow and Lecturer of University of London King's College for Women

II. WOMEN AT THE UNIVERSITIES AND UNIVERSITY TEACHING AS A PROFESSION. By EDITH J. MORLEY

III. SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHING. By (Mrs) M. O'BRIEN HARRIS, D.Sc., London, Hon. Member of Somerville College, Oxford. Headmistress of the County Secondary School, South Hackney

IV. ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHING. By (Mrs) KATE DICE, C.T., Class Teacher in the service of the London County Council, Hon. Sec. of the Fabian Education Group

V. TEACHING IN SCHOOLS FOR THE MENTALLY AND PHYSICALLY DEFECTIVE. By (Mrs) JESSIE E. THOMAS, C.T., Class Teacher at the London County Council School for Physically Defective Children, Turney Road, Dulwich

VI. THE TEACHING OF GYMNASTICS. By MARY HANKINSON, Hon. Sec. of the Ling Association. Diploma of the Dartford Physical Training College

VII. THE TEACHING OF DOMESTIC SUBJECTS. By (Mrs) MARGARET M'KILLOP, M.A. (Dublin). Oxford Honour Schools of Natural Science and of Mathematics Fellow and Tutor of University of London King's College for Women; and E. BEATRICE HOGG, first-class Diploma, National Training School of Cookery. Instructress, London County Council Probationary and Training Centres, Examiner in Domestic Subjects to the City and Guilds of London Institute, the Nautical School of Cookery, etc. Some time Hon. Sec. London Branch, Assistant Teachers of Domestic Subjects

TABLE I. SHOWING THE COST AND DURATION OF EDUCATION IN ARTS AND SCIENCE, AND THE SCHOLARSHIPS AVAILABLE FOR WOMEN STUDENTS AT THE VARIOUS BRITISH UNIVERSITIES. Reprinted (with additions), by special permission, from the pamphlet, "Openings for University Women," published by the Central Bureau for the Employment of Women for the Students' Careers Association

TABLE II. SHOWING SOME ADDITIONAL POST-GRADUATE RESEARCH SCHOLARSHIPS IN ARTS AND SCIENCE AVAILABLE FOR WOMEN STUDENTS, AWARDED BY BODIES OTHER THAN UNIVERSITIES OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. Compiled (with additions) by special permission, from the "Report on the Opportunities for Post-Graduate Work open to Women" published by the Federation of University Women

II. THE MEDICAL PROFESSION INCLUDING DENTISTRY. Sub-Editor: CHRISTINE M. MURRELL, M.D., B.S., London, Assistant Medical Officer of Health (Special Schools) London County Council; Lecturer and Examiner on Adolescence, Health, First Aid, Infant Care, etc., London County Council and Battersea Polytechnic, Honorary Medical Officer, Paddington Creche, and for Infant Consultations, North Marylebone; late Medical Registrar and Electrician and late Resident House Physician, Royal Free Hospital

I. MEDICINE AND SURGERY. By the Sub-Editor

II. DENTAL SURGERY. By (Mrs) Eva M. HANDLEY READ, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., L.S.A., L.D.S. Dental Surgeon to the Royal Free Hospital, the Margaret M'Donald Baby Clinic, and the Cripple Hostel Camberwell

III. THE NURSING PROFESSION TOGETHER WITH MIDWIFERY AND MASSAGE. Sub-Editor: CHRISTINE M. MURRELL

PREFACE. By the Sub-Editor I. GENERAL SURVEY AND INTRODUCTION. By E.M. Musson. Matron of the General Hospital, Birmingham

II. NURSING IN GENERAL HOSPITALS. By E.M. MUSSON

III. NURSING IN PRIVATE HOMES AND Co--OPERATIONS. By GERTRUDE TOWNEND, Sister in her own Nursing Home; late Deputy-Sister, St. Bartholomew's Hospital; late Matron, Royal Ear Hospital, Dean Street

IV. NURSING IN POOR LAW INFIRMARIES. By ELEANOR C. BARTON, President of the Poor Law Infirmary Matrons' Association

V. NURSING IN FEVER HOSPITALS. By S.G. VILLIERS, Matron of the South-West Fever Hospital

VI. DISTRICT NURSING. By AMY HUGHES, General Superintendent of the Queen Victoria Jubilee Institute for Nurses

VII. NURSING IN SCHOOLS AND NURSES AS INSPECTORS. By H.L. PEARSE

VIII. NURSING IN HOSPITALS FOR THE INSANE. By a Matron of one of them

IX. NURSING IN THE COLONIES. By A. FRICKER, Matron of the Colonial Hospital, Trinidad, under the Colonial Nursing Association

X. NURSING IN THE ARMY AND NAVY. By the Sub-Editor

XI. PRISON NURSING. By the Sub-Editor

XII. MIDWIFERY AS A PROFESSION FOR WOMEN (OTHER THAN DOCTORS). By ANNIE M'CALL, M.D., Senior Medical Officer and Lecturer, Clapham Maternity Hospital and School of Midwifery; late Lecturer in and Demonstrator of Operative Midwifery, London School of Medicine for Women; Examiner, Central Midwives' Board; Vice-Chairman of the Committee of the London County Council for the Supervision of Midwives in the County of London

XIII. MASSAGE. By EDITH M. TEMPLETON, Secretary of the Incorporated Society of Trained Masseuses

IV. WOMEN AS SANITARY INSPECTORS AND HEALTH VISITORS. By (Mrs) F.J. GREENWOOD, Sanitary Inspector, Metropolitan Borough of Finsbury, late Chief Woman Inspector, Sheffield; Associate Royal Sanitary Institute; Certificate, Central Midwives' Board; Diploma, National Health Society

V. WOMEN IN THE CIVIL SERVICE

I. THE HIGHER GRADES: PRESENT POSITION AND PROSPECTS FOR THE FUTURE. By a Woman Civil Servant

II. THE LOWER GRADES AND THE PRESENT POSITION. By Another Woman Civil Servant

VI. WOMEN CLERKS AND SECRETARIES. By (Mrs) ELSPETH KEITH ROBERTSON SCOTT

VII. ACTING AS A PROFESSION FOR WOMEN. By LENA ASHWELL

APPENDIX I. SCHEME OF WORK OF THE FABIAN WOMEN'S GROUP

APPENDIX II. LATEST CENSUS RETURNS OF WOMEN WORKERS IN THE SEVEN PROFESSIONS CONSIDERED IN THIS BOOK

FOREWORDS

ON BEHALF OF THE STUDIES COMMITTEE OF THE FABIAN WOMEN'S GROUP

The present economic position of women bristles with anomalies. It is the outcome of long ages of semi-serfdom, when women toiled continuously to produce wealth, which, if they were married, they could enjoy only at the good pleasure of their lords,--ages when the work of most women was conditioned and subordinated by male dominance. Yet in those days the working housewife commanded the consideration always conceded to a bread-winner--even when dependent. In modern times women's economic position has been undermined by the helpless dependence engendered amongst the well-to-do by "parasitism" resulting from nineteenth-century luxury--to quote the striking word of Olive Schreiner. Similarly, dependence has been forced upon large sections of women-folk amongst the manual workers by the loss of their hold upon land and by the decay of home industries. Now a new force is at work: the revolt of the modern woman against parasitism and dependence in all their forms; her demand for freedom to work and to choose her sphere of work, as well as for the right to dispose of what she gains.

Six years ago some women of the Fabian Society, deeply stirred by the tremendous social import of this movement, banded themselves together to unravel the tangled skein of women's economic subjection and to discover how its knots were tied. The first step was to get women to speak out, to analyse their own difficulties and hindrances as matters boldly to be faced. Whatever the truth may turn out to be with regard to natural and inevitable differences of faculty between men and women, it is at least certain that difference of sex, like any other persistent condition of individual existence, implies some difference of outlook. The woman's own standpoint--that is the first essential in understanding her position, economic or other: the trouble is that she has but recently begun to realise that she inevitably has a standpoint, which is not that of her husband, or her brother, or of the men with whom she works, or even that which these persons imagine must naturally be hers. Her point of view is her own, and it is essential to social progress that she shall both recognise this fact and make it understood.

The aim of the Fabian Women's Group was to elicit women's own thoughts and feelings on their economic position, and to this end we invited women of experience and expert knowledge, from various quarters and of many types of thought, to discourse of what they best knew to audiences of women. After the lectures, the questions raised were discussed in all their bearings by women speaking amongst women without diffidence or prejudice. In this manner the physical disabilities of women as workers have been explained clearly by women doctors, and carefully and frankly weighed and considered; the part taken by women in producing the wealth of this country in past times has been set forth by students of economic history, and much scattered material of great value unearthed, and for the first time brought together concerning a subject hitherto deemed negligible by the male historian. Lastly, women employed in or closely connected with each leading occupation or group of occupations to-day--from the professions to the sweated industries--are being asked to describe and to discuss with us the economic conditions they have directly experienced or observed.[1]

It is hoped in time to complete and shape for publication all the material accumulated during these six years. We make a beginning with this book of essays on the economic position of women in seven of the leading professions at present open to them. Some of the papers appear almost in the form in which they were first read to the group and its women visitors: when the original lectures did not fully cover the ground, they have been revised, altered, expanded, or re-written, or essays by new writers have been substituted for those originally presented. Thus the papers on "Teaching in Secondary Schools" by Dr O'Brien Harris and that on "Teaching in Elementary Schools" by Mrs Dice, take the place of an address on "The Life of a Teacher," by Miss Drummond, President of the Incorporated Association of Assistant Mistresses. This paper was withdrawn at the writer's request, but many valuable points from her lecture, which she generously placed at the disposal of the Editor, have been embodied. The other papers in the Education Section are all new. Similarly, in the section which deals with the profession of Nursing, Miss Hughes' paper on "District-Nursing" is the only one which is based on a lecture given to the group; the other articles are all supplementary. Together, we believe they form a unique and almost exhaustive description of the profession.

That the volume might be made as useful as possible, the same method has been followed throughout. The paper and discussion at the group meeting have formed the nucleus from which a thorough treatment of the subject has been developed.

We hope and believe that this book may help to arouse deeper interest in the vigour and energy with which professional women are now striving to make good their economic position; that it may serve to enlist active sympathy with their struggle against the special difficulties and hindrances which beset them, and make plain the value to society of the work they can do. We also believe that the information here brought together may be useful in helping young women to choose and prepare for their life-work.

No pains have been spared to make the book as accurate as possible, and to bring it in every case up to date.

It should be clearly emphasised that each contributor to this volume has expressed her own opinions freely and independently, and that the writers have been selected because they are leading members of their respective professions, not because they represent a particular school of thought. We have endeavoured to get our material from the most authoritative quarters, irrespective of the personal views of those who have supplied it. All the writers have given generously of their time and labour in order that they might contribute to an investigation of profound social and national importance--the clear presentation of the economic position of women as it appears to women themselves. Widely different as are the professional interests and divergent the opinions of the writers of these essays, no one can, as we think, read consecutively the various sections of the book without arriving at the conclusion that, on certain fundamental questions, there is substantial agreement among them. Almost all, as a result of their professional experience, definitely express the conviction that women need economic independence and political emancipation: nowhere is there any hint of opposition to either of these ideals. The writers are unanimous in their insistence upon the importance--to men as well as to women--of equal pay for equal work, irrespective of sex. Wherever the subject of the employment of married women is mentioned--and it crops up in most of the papers--there is adverse comment on the economically unsound, unjust, and racially dangerous tendency in many salaried professions to enforce upon women resignation on marriage. It is clear that professional women are beginning to show resentment at the attempt to force celibacy upon them: they feel themselves insulted and wronged as human beings when, being physically and mentally fit, they are not permitted to judge for themselves in this matter. Apart from their righteous indignation, it may be suggested that, even from the ratepayers' point of view, the normal disabilities of motherhood, with the consequent leave of absence, would probably in the long run be less expensive than the dismissal, at the zenith of their powers, of experienced workers, who have to be replaced by younger and less efficient women. It is, moreover, a truism that the best work is produced by the most contented worker. A fundamentally happy woman, continually strengthened and refreshed by affectionate companionship, is obviously better able to endure the strain of professional work than her unmarried sister, who at best, is deprived of the normal joys of fully--developed womanhood. The action of Central and Local Authorities and of other employers who make marriage a disability for their women employèes, is alluded to by our contributors with an indignation, the more striking for the studied calm with which it is expressed.[2]

The future as foreshadowed in these papers seems to us bright with hope. In spite of difficulties, opposition, rebuffs, and prejudice, professional women workers are slowly but surely advancing in status and in recognition. They are gaining courage to train themselves to claim positions of responsibility and command, and to refuse, if occasion arises, to be subordinated, on the ground of their womanhood, to men less able than themselves. They are learning by experience,--many have already learned,--the need for co-operation and loyalty to one another. While they are thus gaining new and valuable qualities, they have never lost, in spite of many hardships, the peculiar joy and lofty idealism in work which are, in part, a reaction from ages of economic and personal dependence.

[Footnote 1: For an analysis of the whole scheme of work of the Fabian Women's Group, _see_ Appendix I.]

[Footnote 2: In Western Australia the following Amendment, 340A., to the Criminal Code has passed the third reading in the Legislative Assembly, and is expected to pass the Legislative Council before this book appears:--

(1) Any person, who, either as principal or agent--_(a)_ Makes or enters into or enforces or seeks to enforce any rule, order, regulation, contract, agreement or arrangement in restraint of or with intent to restrain, prevent or hinder the marriage of _any person (N.B._ A woman is a "person" in Western Australia) who is in his employment or in the employment of his principal, and is of the age of twenty-one years or upwards; or

_(b)_ Dismisses or threatens to dismiss any person from his employment or the employment of his principal, or alters or threatens to alter, any such person's position to the prejudice of such person by reason of the fact that such person has married or intends to marry, or with a view to restrain, prevent, or hinder such person from getting married;

is guilty of an offence, and is liable to imprisonment for three months, or to a fine not exceeding five hundred pounds.

(2) The provisions of this section shall apply to corporations so far as they are capable of being applied.]

WOMEN WORKERS IN SEVEN PROFESSIONS

SECTION I

THE TEACHING PROFESSION

"All stood thus far Upon equal ground: that we were brothers all In honour, as in one community."

I

INTRODUCTION

Until recently, girls who desired to earn their livelihood drifted naturally into teaching, which was often the last refuge of the destitute. Even nowadays, it is taken too much for granted that some form of teaching is the obvious opening for educated women, who aspire to economic independence. But, thanks to various causes and developments, it is now almost universally recognised that teaching is a profession, and one which can be entered only by candidates, who are properly equipped and trained. In a book such as this, it may then be assumed that the elderly governess, driven to teach by poverty and lack of friends, with no qualifications but gentility, good manners, good principles, and a humble mind, is a figure which is mercifully becoming less and less common. It is still necessary, however, to insist on the fact that brains and education and training are not by themselves sufficient to produce a successful teacher. Quite literally, teaching is a "calling" as well as a profession: the true candidate must have a vocation; she must mount her rostrum or enter her class-room with a full conviction of the importance of her mission, and of her desire to undertake it. This earnest purpose should not, however, destroy her sense of humour and of proportion; it is possible to take oneself and one's daily routine of work too seriously, a fault which does not tend to impress their importance on a scoffing world. No girl should become a teacher because she does not know how else to gain her living. The profession is lamentably overstocked with mediocrities, lacking enthusiasm and vigour, drifting more and more hopelessly from one post to another. But there is plenty of room for keen and competent women, eager to learn and to teach, and this is true of all branches of the profession. No work can well be more thankless, more full of drudgery and of disappointment than that of a teacher who has missed her vocation. Few lives can be more full of happy work and wide interests than those of teachers who rejoice in their calling.