CHAPTER VII.
EFFECTS OF THE WAR ON WOMEN'S EMPLOYMENT.
Reports of the Board of Trade on the State of Employment in the United Kingdom in October and December 1914, and February 1915.
Interim Report of the Central Committee on Employment of Women.
The Labour Gazette.
Labour in War-Time. By G. D. H. Cole. Bell, 1915.
Report on Outlets for Labour after the War by a Committee appointed by Section F of the British Association. Manchester Meeting. 1915.
Articles in the _New Statesman_, _Common Cause_, _Englishwoman_, _Economic Journal_, etc.
INDEX
Abbott, Edith, 151
Abram, Annie, 13
Accidents, 59, 125, 129
Accounts of Hen. VII., 27 of seventeenth century, 15 Shuttleworth, 11
Accrington, 96
Adam and Eve, 6
Adaptation of industry in war-time, 248
Administration of the Factory Act, 53, 181-2, 243, 255, 282-93
Adolescence, care of, 206
Aftalion, 72
Agricultural population, report on, 51
Aikin, 43, 50
Aldhelm, 7
Alfred, King, 5
Amalgamated Society of Clothiers, 116
Amalgamation, the, 112
America, 60 Women's Unions in, _section_, 141
Ammunition workers' strike, 130-31
Anaemia, 188
_Ancren Riwle_, 8
Andrews, 7
Anglo-Saxon industry, 5, 7
Anthropology, 2
Anti-Combination Act, repeal of, 92
Anti-Socialist Law, 155
Anti-Sweating League, 125, 133
Apathy of the governing class, 52
Apathy of women, 104-7, 113, 115, 209
Apprentices, factory, 273
Apprenticeship, _section_, 15
Architects, the first, 2
Arkwright, 33, 35, 36, 47
Artizans and Machinery, Select Committee on, 53
Ashley, afterwards Shaftesbury, Lord, 185
Asses, machines worked by, 43
Assistance in craft industries by women and girls, 16
Association, _section_, 205
_Athenaeum_, 52 _n._
Attacks on the factory system, 49-51
Attraction of the family, 83
Aubrey, 7
Backwardness of the Factory Act, 184
Bad conditions in factories, 135, 181, 273, 286
Bagley, Sarah, 142
Baines, E., 38, 44
Bamford, 24
Barber knotter, the, 294
Barry, Leonora, 145
Beam, the, 98
Beamers, 126
Beaming, 107
Bebel, 156
Berchta, 2
Berlin, 158, 159
Bermondsey, 135
Besant, Mrs., 128
Betterment, 202
Bill to raise wages, 1593, 20
Bilston, 136
Birmingham, 43, 62, 136 trades, 29
Bishopsgate, workhouse in, 21
Black, Clementina, 122, 128
Blackburn, 33, 96, 111, 112, 113 society, 99
Black Death, 4
Bondfield, Margaret, 259 _n._
Bonwick, 23
Bookbinders, Society of, 120
Boot and shoe trade, 63-4 Unions, 116, 150
Boston, 151
Bosworth, Louise, 234
Bourgeois women's movement, 162, 163
Bowley, A. L., 228
Bradford, 116 Bradford Dale, 25
Brass work, 66 polishing, 191
Braun, Frau Lily, 69, 161-4, 175
Brighton, 122
Bristol, 14, 29, 63, 64, 65, 224 Weavers' Gild of, 22
Britain, Great, what she stands for, 265
British Association, 64
Bücher, 9
Bureau of Labour, enquiry by, 149
Burnley weavers, 102
Burslem, 29
Butler, Elizabeth, 61
Butler, Josephine, 199
Button-making, 29
Cadbury, E., 195 _n._
Capitalist employer, the, 185-6
Card-room operatives, 59, _section_, 113, 126, 168
Carpenters' Company, 17
Carrying loads, 65, 66
Cartwright, 35, 42
Catholic Unions, 161, 164
Causes of lack of organisation, 115, 139, 151
Census, Chap. III.
Central Commission of German Trade Unions, 156
Central Committee on Women's Employment, 247
Central Strike Fund, 103
Centralisation needed, 173
Chain-makers, 131 Board, first determination of, 132
Changes effected by industrial revolution, _section_, 178
Chapman, Sydney J., 92
Charles II., 26
Chaucer, 10
Chemicals, 63
Child labour in factories, 272 report on, 57
Childbirth, employment after, 290
Children and machines, 43, 272 exploitation of, 264
Children's clothes, 65 Employment Commission, 62, 63
Chorley weavers, 96, 103
Christian Trade Unions, 160
Churchill, Winston, 20
Cigar trade, 117, 118
Citizenship for women, 190, 196
Civil conditions, statistics of, 79
Clarke, Allen, 45
Class differences and class solidarity, 174 interest, 166 selfishness, 186
Cleft, the, 207
Clothing trades, 64 Unions, 116 wages in, 218
Clothworkers, 14
Clubs for working women, 166
Coal-mining, women in, 29
Cole, G. D. H., 174, 208
Collectors, 105
Collet, Clara, 80, 170
Combination among rich clothiers, 17, 18 of Workers, Committee on, 94
Committees of Weavers' Union, 108, 176
Competing Unions, 172, 173
Competition between men and women, 66 for employment, 169
Complexity of weavers' lists, 99
Compositors, 116, 117
Compositors' Union, 117
Comradeship among women, 190
Confectioners' Union, 130
Confectionery works, 67
Constructive measures, _section_, 260
Consumers, women as, 208, 263
Consumers' co-operation, 208
Co-operation with bourgeois movement to be avoided, 163
Co-operative Guild, Women's, 208
Copper works, 29
Cop-winding, 107
Core-making, 64, 146
Corporate action, 175 women untrained for, 165
Cotton, bad, 101, 114
_Cotton Factory Times_, 145 _n._
Cotton trade, 31 _et seq._, _section_, 240, 268-82
Cotton weavers, _section_, 96, 168, 173 male, 60
Cotton-weaving, 58
Courtney, Janet, 263 _n._
Coventry, 64 ribbon trade, 41
Cracker factory, strike in, 148
Cradley, 133-4, 136
Cradley Heath chain-makers, 131
Craft Unions, 149, 158, 207-8
Cunningham, W., D.D., 38
_Curse of the Factory System_, 47
Cycle industry, 64
Darwen and Ramsbottom, 96
Death-rates, 77 of male infants, 257
Deaths of women in mine explosions, 29
Decay of hand-spinning, _section_, 39
Decline of domestic manufacture, 35
Decrease of employment in wartime, statistics of, 241, 266
Deductions, 292
Deficiencies, educational, 169
Defoe, Daniel, 24
Delays in labour legislation, causes of, 186
Deloney, 6
Dependents on women-workers, 145-6, 233-4
Derby, 27, 95
Derbyshire, 29, 97
_Detroit Free Press_, 145
Development of capitalistic industry, _section_, 17
Development of women's employment, 61
Devon, 51
Devotion and self-sacrifice of women, 165
Difficulties in organising women, 115, 139, 151, 154, 164, 169
_Digby Mysteries_, 6
Dismissal without notice, 125
Disproportion of women, 77
Distaff, the, Chap. I., _section_ Textiles, 5
Divergent views on factory system, 45
Division among the weavers, 97
Dock and General Workers' Union, 126
Dock Strike, 128
Doherty, 55
Domestic workers, statistics of, 84, 86 little organisation among, 168
Dorset, 51
Dover, New Hampshire, strikes at, 141
Drawers, 126
Dressmakers, little organisation among, 168
Dressmaking, 64, 65, 87, 118 factory, _d.-m._, 72, 220
Drudgery a survival, 203-4
Dundee, 115
Dunlop, Jocelyn, 15, 16
Dust-extractor, 59
Dust in rope-works, 129
Early civilisation, 1-3
Early factories, conditions in, 50, 52, 181
Early manufactures, characteristics of, 47
Earning power of women, 71-2
Earnings and Hours Enquiry, 214
Earnings in 1770, 33 of women, Chap. VI. insufficient for health, 229
East End workers, 128
East Lancashire Amalgamated Society, 96
East London, 130
East Meon, Church of, 6
Economic Independence, 80
Economic Section of British Association, 64, 253 _n._
Economic self-dependence, 81
Eden, Sir F., 39
Edmonton, ammunition workers at, 130-31
Education by Trade Unions, 159
Educational deficiencies, 169
Edward VI., 21
Effects, moral, of Trade Unions among women, 153
Effects of the War on the employment of women, Chap. VII.
Egotistic refinement, 198
Eight-hour Leagues, 143
Elements of Statistics, 228
Elizabeth, 19
Employers oppose Unionism, 151
Engineering, 64
Enlightenment of women, 194
Ephemeral character of Women's Unions, 150
Equal chance, an, 145
Equal pay for equal work, 144, 152, 172, 255
Equal rates of pay for women, 93
Equality of opportunity, 196
Erdmann, Dr., 167
Essex, 25 _n._
Exclusion of women, _section_, 189 from local governing bodies, 198
Exeter, Justices of, 20
Expansion of trade, 18
Experience in sorting wool, 21
Fachverein der Mäntelnäherinnen, 155
Factory, the, _section_, 43
Factory Act, the first, 185 of 1833, 45, 181 of 1844, 1847, 1850, 1864, 1867, 1878, 1901, 182 prejudice against the, 120 what it has done, _section_, 181
Factory system, beginning of, 21, 22 disliked, 42
Fall of prices in weaving, 26, 37, 39
Fall River, strike at, 143-4
Family, attraction of the, 83 women working in the, 178
Fatigue, 202
Federation of Trade Unions, 208 American, 145, 146, 152
Felkin, 25
Female Industrial Association, 142
Female Membership of Trade Unions, 177
Feminist movement, 175
Ferrier, Dr., 52
Fielden, John, 45, 47
File cutlery, 64
Fines, unfair, 100-102, 127-8
Finishing goods, 67
Fire-escapes, 287
Five hours' spell, 183
Flax, 10, 11, 242 industry, strike in the, 138
Fly-shuttle, invention of, 33
Folklore ceremonies, 1
Food trades, 63
Frame-work knitting, _section_, 25
Free Unions, German, 156, 160
Freedom of employment, unrestricted, 193
Frigga's Distaff or Rock, 5
Fruit-picking, 65
Fuegians, 2
Future organisation of women, _section_, 206
Garment workers, 150
Gaskell, Mrs., 74
Gaskell, P., 38 _n._, 45, 47, 48, 56, 231
Gas-Workers' and General Labourers' Union, 140, 174 _n._
General Federation of Trade Unions, 140
_Gentlemen's Magazine_, 39
German Statistical Year-Book, 157
Germany, Women's Unions in, _section_, 154
Girls untrained, 16
Girl-workers, 73
Glasgow, 94, 122, 224 spinners, 93
Glossop, 27
Gloucester, 30
Gloucestershire, 18
Gnauck-Kühne, Elizabeth, 157, 164-166, 207 _n._
Goldmark, Josephine, 202
Governing class, 52, 179, 181
Graham, 54
Grand General Union, 93
Grand National Union, 95
Grant, P., 45
Greenwood, Arthur, 189
Greig, Mrs. Billington, 209
Grey or Franciscan Friars, 6
Guest, 32
Guild, Women's Co-operative, 176-177
Habit of association, lack of, 106
Half-pay apprentices, 41
Halifax, 39
Hamilton, A., 20
Hammond, J. L. and B, 180 _n._
Hand-loom Weavers, Committee on, 42
Hand-loom weaver's wife, _section_, 40
Hand-wheels thrown aside, 34
Hargreaves, J., 33, 42
Haslam, J., 191, 192, 193
Hat and cap workers, 150
Healds, 98
Hebden Bridge, 231
Henley, Walter of, 10
Henry VII., accounts of, 27
_Henry VIII._, 19
Hicks, Mrs. Amie, 128, 129, 130
Hicks, Margaretta, 209
Hirsch-Duncker Unions, 161
Holda or Holla, 2
Hollow-ware workers, strike of, 136-138
Home, work in the, 44
Home Workers' Union, 160
Horrocks, 36
Hostility of employers to Unions, 139, 151, 169
Hotel servants and waitresses, 168
Houldsworth, 93
Hours of work, 183-4, 277, 289
Housewife preparing wool, 11, 14-15 position of the, 165
Housing in towns, 50
Huddersfield, 115
Hull, 14, 15
Husbandry, servants in, _section_, 3
Hutchins, B. L., 197 _n._, 207 _n._
Hyde, 93
Ideals of Victorian era, 198-9
Ignorance of domestic work, 51
Importation of silk, 26
Improvements in working conditions, 190, 202
Increase of women in metal trades, 63
Increase of women-workers in Germany, 155
Industrial change, effects of, 42 revolution, Chap. II.
Industrial Workers of the World, 148
"Industry in bonds," 49
Inequality of wages, 123
Influence of Unions on conditions, 153
Injury from prolonged standing, 186, 187
Insanitary conditions in confectioners' workrooms, 130
Inspection of factories impossible for women, 197
Inspectors, factory, 181 women appointed as, 182
Instability of status, 152
Insurance Act, 103, 108, 116, 126, 131, 176, 188, 205
Interdenominational Unions, 161
Interests, interlocking of, 173
"Interkonfessionelle" Unions, 164
International Association for Labour Legislation, 125
International Typographical Union, 143
International Workers' Congress, 123
Inventions, 43
Ipswich, 65 Christ's Hospital at, 21
Ireland, 224
Irons on apprentices, 274
Ironworks, a fifteenth-century, 29
Isolation of women, 164-5
Jacquard's loom, 42
Jam-making, 135
James, Clara, 128, 130
James, John, 25 _n._
James, William, 207
Jones, Lloyd, 106
Kaffirs, 2
Kamtchatdals, 2
Kay, 33
Kendal, 39
Kettering, 224
King, Mr., 120
Knights of Labour, 144, 145
Knitting-machine, 25
_Korrespondenzblatt_, 158
Labour, an important factor in production, 136
Labour Commission, 61, 63, 129, 170, 197, 198
Labour League, Women's, 177, 208
Labour legislation, weakness of and delays in, 186
Labour movement, 127
Labourers, Statute of, 4
Lacquering, 63
Lancashire, 61, 74, 96, 97, 102 cotton spinners of, 93
Lapsley, 29
Lassalle, 158
Laundresses, Union of, 122
Laundry Workers' International Union, 147
Law, Alice, 36
Lawrence, Mass., 149
Lead mines, women in, 29 poisoning, 288
Lee, inventor of knitting-machine, 25
Leeds, 23, 39, 116, 224
Leicester, 92, 224
Leland's _Itinerary_, 21
Lenience of Magistrate, 293
Levant Company, 32
Lighting of work-places, 184, 284
Linen and jute, 115, 242
List prices, 99, 100, 114
Liverpool, 173
Locked in factory, 129-30
Lombe, John, 27
London, 126, 242 milliners, 168 Trades Council, 128
London weavers, 13, 14 Women's Trades Council, 123
Loom, the, 5
Low wages of women, consolation for, 57
Lowell, Female Labour Reform Association at, 142 strikes at, 141 Union, 142
Lye, 136, 137
Lytton, Lady Constance, 200
Macarthur, Mary, xv, 131
Macclesfield, 28
MacDonald, J. R., 195 _n._
Machine work, 66
Machinery and skill, 68-9 and women's employment, 69-70
Mackworth, Sir H., 29
Maladjustment and Readjustment, _section_, 245
Male Weavers' Union, 143-4
Malingering, xv, 188
Malmesbury Abbey, 21-2
Manchester, 31, 32, 47, 50, 55, 93, 126, 173, 176, 224 societies, 126-7 spinners, 92 Women's Trade Union Council, 139 Women's War Interests Committee, 256, 296
Mantoux, 23, 41
Manufactures and Commerce, Select Committee on, 54
Markham, Gervase, 14
Marriage, _section_, 78 and organisation, 151 decreasing prospect of, 196, 256 prospect of, its effects on young men and women, 151, 169-70
Married women's work, 89-91
Marx, Karl, 49
Mary, Queen, 21
Match factories, 47 workers, 183 makers' Union, 128
Match-girls' strike, 127-8
Material progress, 51, 265
Maternity benefit, 103, 259 _n._ and child welfare, 258 care of, 206
Matheson, M. C., 195 _n._
Matthews, Miss, 153
Mechanical power, 200-201 progress, 43
Mellor, 33
Men and women, division of work between, 53 numbers of, in cotton spinning, 55 organised together, 166, 168
Metal trades, increase of women's employment in, 63
Metal-cutting, 66
Middle-class women's movement, _section_, 195
_Mines_, an _Account of_, 29
Minimum, principle of the, 237-8 requirements, 227
Monopoly of trade in clothing, 18
Moral atmosphere of factories, 50 effects of Unionism, 153
Mortality, 76, 77
Movement of women's wages, _section_, 229
Mule-spinning, 191-2
Mundella, A. J., 250 _n._
Munitions work, 251-2
National Federation of Women Workers, 131, 133, _section_, 140, 296
_Nature of Woman_, 2
Neath, 29
Needlewomen, 154
Nelson and District Weavers' Association, 101 _n._
New demand for women's labour, _section_, 250
New England cotton mills, 142
New spirit among women, _section_, 199
New Unionism, 127, 149, 174
New York, 141, 142
Nightingale, Florence, 199, 200
Non-textile trades, 28-30 industrial revolution in, _section_, 61
Nordverein der Berliner Arbeiterinnen, 155
Northampton, 224
N.E. Lancashire Amalgamated Society, 96
Norwich, 23, 224
Oakeshott, G., 118 _n._
Oastler, Thomas, 185
Occupational statistics, 81-8
Oldham, 95 and district, 96
Opposition of landowners to Liberals, 46 to factory legislation, 121-3 to women's employment, 42, 43, 93, 94
Oppression by employers, 19
Ordinances of Worcester, 18
Organisation, early efforts at, _section_, 92 in different trades, 171 of German Unions, 157-60 of women, need for, 107, 255 of women, together with men, 172 of young persons, difficulty of, 113
Outlook, the, _section_, 167
Overcrowding in towns, 52
Overstrain, 110 in cotton industry, 59, 281, 287
Overtime, 184, 289
Owen, Robert, 44, 47, 53, 95, 106
Padiham, 96, 113
Paper and stationery, 63
Paper-sorting or overlooking, 67, 168
Paris, 123
Paterson, Emma, 119-22
Pay-stewards, 176
Pearson, Karl, 1, 206
Peel, the elder, 53
Peel's Committee (1816), 41
Pen trade, 63
Percival, Dr. Thomas, 52, 185
Personality in Union officials, 174
Petition against importation of silk, 26, 27 of weavers, 17
Philanthropy, 163, 166
Phosphorus, white, prohibition of, 183
Phossy jaw, 183
Picks, 98
Pictet, 5
Piece rates, 97-102
Piecers to replace spinners, 54 women as, 192
Piers Plowman, 8
Pin manufacture, 30
Pittsburgh, U.S.A., 61
Plague, the, 4
Plated ware trade, 30
Policy, a coherent, 173
Polish women weavers, strike of, 149
Polynesians, 2
Poor Law, its effect on wages, 21 of Elizabeth, 32
Possibilities of modern industry, 204 of State control, _section_, 204
Potential changes of the industrial revolution, _section_, 200
Potteries, 29
Potters, 146
Power sewing-machine, 63
Power-loom, 35 introduction of the, 55
Premature employment, effects of, 62
Preparing material, 65
Present position of the woman worker, _section_, 183
Press-work, 66
Preston, 96
Primitive industries, 2, 3
Printing, 66, 116
Professional women, scope for, 263 _n._
Professions for women, 80
Prohibition to combine, 80 of women's employment, 14
Proportion of women in Unions, 147
Prosperity of spinners, 38
Protective and Provident League, 119-24
Psychological difficulties in organising women, 164
Public spirit, lack of, 170
Queen, the, 247
Radcliffe Society, 96
Radcliffe, William, 33
Rag-cutting, 65
Ramsay, Isle of Man, 93
Reaction in war-time, 264
Reciprocal movement between spinners and weavers, 40
Reed, 97
Reeling, 107
Reforms started by industrial employers, 53
Registrar-General, 75, 76
Relative wages of men and women, 231-6
Replacement of men by women, 55-56, 252, 255
Results the War may have, _section_, 256
Richards, factory inspector, 49
Rights and privileges of women, 105
Ring-room doffers, 113
Ring-spinners, 114
Ring-winders, 111
Ring-winding, 107
Roberts, Lewis, 32
Rock, Maria, 5
Rogers, Thorold, 4, 5
Rope-makers, 129
Sadler, M. T., 185
St. Crispin, Daughters of, 142, 144
San Francisco, 147, 153
Sanitary conditions in non-textile trades, 62
Sanitation in town and country, 50, 51
Schreiner, Olive, 69
Schultze-Gävernitz, 44, 157
Screw manufactories, 62
Seamstresses, 146
Segregation of women from affairs, 109
Sewing women, 143
Shaftesbury, Lord, 185, 186
Shakespeare quoted, 19, 25 _n._
Shann, G., 195 _n._
Sheffield, 64 plated ware trade, 30
Shifting of industrial processes, 44
Shirt-making, 223
Shock of War, _section_, 239
Shop Assistants' Union, 140, 176
Shortage of women's labour, 245
Shorter hours, effects of, 202 movement for, 109-10
Shuttleworth Accounts, 11
Shyness of women, 109
Sick benefit, 119, 131, 188
Sick visitors, 108, 176
Sickness Benefit Claims, Committee on, xv
Silk, _section_, 26
Simcox, Edith, 123
Sisterhood, the, 92, 271 _n._
Slater, G., 180 _n._
Small-ware weavers, 92
Snowden, Keighley, 136 _n._
Soap, 63
"Social and Economic History," 36
Social Democratic Party, 156
_Social England_, 29
Social influences, 163, 166, 170
Social strata in the factory, 67
Socialism and women, 163-4
Solidarity between men and women, 196
Sorting clothes in laundries, 65
Southey, 50
"Spear-half," 5
Speeding up, 58-9, 110, 281
Spell of work, 183
"Spindle-half," 5
Spinning, a family occupation, 24 by young women, 9 for the unemployed, 21 jennies, 34, 42 machine invented by Hargreaves, 33 parties, 9
Squire, Miss Rose, 184
Stages in the woman's career, 207
Standard of life in Lancashire, 60, 105, 107, 187 of immigrants, 142
Standing, effects of persistent, 186, 275
Statistics of domestic workers, 84, 86 of German women in Unions, 167 of textile workers, 87 of unemployment in war-time, 241, 266 of wages, Chap. VI. of women in Unions, 177 of women's life and employment, Chap. III.
Statutory rights of workers, 186, 204
Stay-making, 65
Steam laundry workers, 147
Steam power, introduction of, 35
Stockport, 36, 108, 113 strike at, 96
Strain of modern industry, _section_, 186 of work, 184, 281
Strike-breakers, 93
Strikes, _see various industries_ in 1911, 135
Struggle of the crafts, 19
Stumpe, 21
Suffolk clothiers, petition of, 18
Surats, 101, 280
Surplus of women, _section_, 75
Survival of previous standards and conditions, _section_, 179
Swabia, 2
Syndicalism, 197
Tailoresses, increase of, 87 Union of, 122
Tailoring, 64, 221
Tailors, Amalgamated Society of, 122
Tapestry, 8
Tayler, Dr. L., 2
Taylor, Cooke, the elder, 48, 49, 52 _n._
Temple, Sir William, 11
Textile work, as adjunct to farming, 24, 33 societies, 126 workers, 150 workers, statistics of, 87 workers, wages of, 216
Textiles, _section_, 5
Theodore, St., 8
Thüringen, 2
_Times_, the, 127, 128
Timidity of social legislation, 185
Timmins, S., 63
Tobacco, 63 workers in, 127
Toynbee Hall, 127
Tracey, Anna, 188
Trade Boards Act, 1909, 20, 116, 126, 131, 132, 138, 183, 224, 226, 245
Trade Union Congress, 119, 120, 122, 123
Traill's _Social England_, 29
Transformation of some womanly trades, 61-2
_Treasure of Traffike_, 32
Truck Act, 184-5, 290 in Germany, 155
Twisters, 126
Typographical Societies, 116
Umbrella Sewers' Union, 142
Underclothing, 65
Underground, women working, 194
Unemployment and short time, 228
Unemployment among women in war-time, 240-43
Unions, women in, Chaps. IV. and IV.A
U.S.A., Labour Commission of, 234
Unorganised trades, 102, 126
Unorganised workers, movement among, _section_, 127, 256
Unsuitable work, 194, 236
Unwin, Professor, 14, 18, 19, 22
Upholsterers, 146
Ure, 44, 47
Variety of conditions, 46, 47
Ventilation, 276
Verein zur Vertretung der Interessen der Arbeiterinnen, 155
Victimisation, 96, 97, 105, 139, 169
Wage census, 1906, Chap. VI.
Wage contract, 73
Wages in seventeenth century, 20 in miscellaneous trades, 225-6 of women, Chap. VI. raised in low-class industries, 135
Wagner, R., quoted, 31
War, effects of, on employment of women, Chap. VII.
War, the, results it may have, _section_, 256
Warden, 7
Warehouse work, 67
Warner, Townsend, 23
Warping, 112
Watch-making, 64
Water-power, 18
Weavers' Amalgamation, 97, 103, 205
Weavers become clothiers, 17 become wage-earners, 17
Weavers' Committees, 104-7, 108 Company, 13 Gild, 13 secretaries, 101-2, 104, 106 Union, 96, 111, 126
Weavers in Scotland, General Association of, 92 of Edinburgh, 14
Weaving as a woman's trade, _section_, 12
Weaving, operation of, 97-8
Webb's _History of Trade Unionism_, 93 _n._
Weft, 98
Wells, H. G., 207
West Riding Fancy Union, 92
What is and what might be, 200
What the Factory Act has done, _section_, 181
Wider views of Union officials, 205
Widows, employment of, 90-91 carry on husbands' business, 17
Wigan, 108
Wilson, Mrs. C. M., 23 _n._
Wiltshire, 21, 51
Winders, 111, 126, 294
_Winter's Tale_, 6
Winterton, 29
Witch, the, 1
Woman wage-earner, _section_, 53, and Chap. VI.
"Women and the Trades," 61
Women bakers, carders, brewers, spinners, workers of wool, etc., 13 bookbinders, 123 chain-makers, 134
Women exempt from craft restriction, 12
Women, an important factor in industry, 21 as individual earners, 25 as subordinate helpers, 178
Women Factory Inspectors, xiv, 109, 182, 183, 282-93 appointment of, opposed, 197 reinforcement of, needed, xvi
Women in an inferior position, 16 in industrial transition, 19 in the great industry, 203
Women only, Unions of, 118, 162, 171-2
Women weavers displacing men, 13
Women's employment, Central Committee on, 247
Women's movement and the labour movement, 199
Women's Rights Party in Germany, 154
Women's secretariat in German Commission of Trade Unions, 158
Women's Trade Union League, 118, _section_, 119, 175
Women's Trade Union League in America, 153
Women's wages, Chap. VI.
Wood, G. H., 229
Wool and worsted, 115
Wool, _section textiles_, 5
Woollen and clothing trades, _section_, 243
Work done by women, three classes of, 65
Work done for wages outside the home, 22, 23
Workers' Educational Association, 74
Workers' Union, 140
Workrooms for unemployed women, 249
Workshop and factory, wages in, compared, 219
_Worsted, History of_, 25 _n._
Wright, Thomas, 7, 9
Wyatt, Paul, 33
Yarn, demand for, 32, 248
York, 23
Yorkshire, 18, 97 women, 115
Young, Arthur, 23, 29
Zimmern, A. E., 265 _n._
THE END
_Printed by_ R. & R. CLARK, LIMITED, _Edinburgh_.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] _I.e._ Cots or cottages.
[2] Departmental Committee on Sickness Benefit Claims, Evidence 40446, Bondfield.
[3] _Ibid._ 40462, Bondfield.
[4] 37 Edw. III. c. 6, quoted in Cunningham's _Growth of Industry and Commerce_, I. 353 _n._ (5th ed.).
[5] See a volume of tracts at the British Museum numbered 1851, c. 10.
[6] S.P. Dom. Eliz. 1593, vol. 244. Reprinted in _English Economic History_, Bland, Brown and Tanney, p. 336.
[7] Cf. a report of a workhouse in 1701 (catalogued as 816. m. 15. 48 in the Brit. Mus. Library), where ten poor women were employed to teach the children to spin.
[8] _Tour in East of England_, vol. ii. pp. 75, 81. I am indebted to Mrs. C. M. Wilson for drawing my attention to these passages and for suggesting the remarks immediately following.
[9] Defoe in his _Plan of English Commerce_ says that after the great plague in France and the peace in Spain the run for goods was so great in England, and the prices so high that poor women in Essex could earn 1s. or 1s. 6d. a day by spinning, and the farmers could hardly get dairymaids. This was, however, only for a time; demand slackened, and the spinners were reduced to misery.
[10] James, _History of Worsted_, p. 289. This pleasant custom may remind us of lines in Shakespeare's _Twelfth Night_, i. 4:
"The spinsters and the knitters in the sun And the free maids that weave their thread with bones."
[11] Philip Gaskell, who was, however, so prejudiced against the factory system that his views must be taken with caution, says that the wives of manufacturers who had risen from poverty to affluence were "an epitome of everything that is odious in manners," their only redeeming point being a profuse hospitality, which however, Grant attributes to "a sense of vain-glory."--_Manufacturing Population_, p. 60.
[12] _Growth of English Industry and Commerce_, _Modern Times_, p. 654 (ed. 1907).
[13] _History of Cotton Manufacture_, p. 446.
[14] Factory Inspector's Report dated August 1835, quoted in Fielden's _Curse of the Factory System_, 1836, p. 43.
[15] _Country round Manchester_, p. 192. Compare Mrs. Gaskell's descriptions in _Mary Barton_, fifty years later, for a very similar account.
[16] _Athenaeum_, August 20 (probably 1842), quoted in W. C. Taylor, _Factories and the Factory System_, pp. 3, 4, London, 1842.
[17] L. Braun, _Die Frauenfrage_, p. 209. Cf. E. Gnauck-Kühne, _Die Arbeiterinnenfrage_ 23.
[18] _Woman and Labour_, p. 50.
[19] Registrar-General's Report for 1912, p. xxxvii.
[20] "Prospects of Marriage for Women," by Clara Collet, _Nineteenth Century_, April 1892, reprinted in _Educated Working Women_, P. S. King, 1902.
[21] The servant-keeping class often shows a tendency to regard social questions mainly from the point of view of maintaining the supply of domestic servants.
[22] See Appendix, p. 270.
[23] Webb, _History of Trade Unionism_, pp. 104-5.
[24] _Parliamentary Papers_, 1838, viii. _qq._ 360, 1341-2.
[25] "Select Committee on Manufactures," _Parliamentary Papers_, 1833, vol. vi. p. 323, _q._ 5412-3.
[26] _Rules of the Nelson and District Power-Loom Weavers' Association_, 1904, p. 13, "Advice to Members, etc."
[27] Report of N.C. Amalgamation, June 1906.
[28] Evidence is not unanimous on this point.
[29] Report of S.E. Lancashire Provincial Association, Dec. 1912.
[30] See _Women in the Printing Trade_ (edited by J. R. MacDonald) for an excellent study of the whole circumstances and conditions of the trade.
[31] G. Oakeshott, "Women in the Cigar Trade in London," in the _Economic Journal_, 1900, p. 562.
[32] Second Report of the W.T.U.L.
[33] In Mr. Keighley Snowden's words, from which this account is taken (_Daily Citizen_, 12, xi. 1912): "If foreign competition at last threatens us, it is in consequence of this heartless folly."
[34] Space does not permit us to give a full account of the efforts for co-operative action for social purposes made by working women at this period, or of the interesting study of social conditions made by Leonora Barry, the investigator of women's work under the Knights of Labour. See Report on Women's Unions, Chapter IVA.
[35] Quoted in the _Cotton Factory Times_, September 18, 1885.
[36] Report of the Strike of Textile Workers in Lawrence, Mass., p. 63.
[37] This chapter was written before the outbreak of war.
[38] It is a curious reflection on the tardiness of our Government statistical work, that figures for German Trade Unions are here actually accessible for a more recent date than those of English Unions. [Written early in 1914.]
[39] A. Erdmann, _Church and Trade Union in Germany_, 1913.
[40] Report of Gas-workers' and General Labourers' Association, March 1897.
[41] This chapter was written before the outbreak of war.
[42] Many worthy folk to this day even show by the use of the phrase "_giving_ employment" that they suppose themselves to be conferring a benefit on persons who work for them, irrespective of wages paid, and it is unlikely that our ancestors were more enlightened on this point than ourselves.
[43] G. Slater, _English Peasantry and the Enclosure of Common Fields_, Constable, 1907, p. 266. Compare Hammond, J. L. and B, _The Village Labourer_, chap. v.
[44] See, _e.g._, the cases mentioned in the Factory Inspectors' Report for 1912, p. 142, and compare the case reported by Miss Vines in the Report for 1913, p. 97. In a Christmas-card factory the women were being employed two days a week from 8 to 8, three days a week from 8 A.M. to 10 P.M., and Saturdays 8 to 4. "The whole staff of workers and foremen looked absolutely worn out."
[45] _School Child in Industry_, by A. Greenwood, p. 7. Workers' Educational Association, Manchester, price 1d.
[46] See the _Englishwoman_ for June 1914.
[47] The work of a "big piecer" is practically identical with that of a spinner, only that responsibility rests with the latter.
[48] See Cadbury Matheson and Shann, _Women's Work and Wages_, p. 212; Macdonald, _Women in the Printing Trades_, p. 53.
[49] See in Chapter IVA. pp. 162-3. Frau Lily Braun's views on the subject.
[50] See an article by the present writer in the _Englishwoman_, April 1911.
[51] Northern Counties Amalgamation of Weavers, etc. Report for July 1913.
[52] I owe the suggestion of a "cleft" (_Spalte_) in the woman-worker's career to Madame E. Gnauck-Kühne, who developed it in her book, _Die deutsche Frau_. Compare "Statistics of Women's Life and Employment," _Journal of the Statistical Society_, 1909.
[53] Earnings and Hours Enquiry: Textile Industries, Cd. 4545, 1909; Clothing Trades, Cd. 4844, 1909.
[54] Raised to 3-1/2d. on 19th July 1915.
[55] _Elements of Statistics_, 2nd edition, pp. 37, 38, and 39.
[56] 1,091,202 out of a total of 4,830,734.
[57] _Women's Industrial News_, July 1912, p. 56; compare _The War, Women and Unemployment_, published by the Fabian Society.
[58] This chapter was prepared during the first year and the early part of the second year of war. It is necessarily incomplete, as war is still raging; but it is hoped that a brief summary of the position of women-workers in war time, and of the expedients adopted to ease and improve it, may not be without interest.
[59] Article by G. H. Carter, _Economic Journal_, March 1915; see also Notes in the _Women's Trades Union League Review_, January 1915.
[60] Article by Jas. Haslam, _Englishwoman_, March 1915, and information given privately.
[61] See article by C. Black in the _Common Cause_, February 12, 1915.
[62] _Westminster Gazette_, October 16, 1914.
[63] See a letter by Mr. A. J. Mundella, L.C.C., in the _School Child_ for December 1914.
[64] _New Statesman_, November 7, 1914.
[65] _Report on Outlets for Labour after the War_, British Association, Section F., Manchester, 1915.
[66] See _The National Care of Maternity_, by Margaret Bondfield, published by the Women's Co-operative Guild. The proposals include the administration of Maternity Benefit by the Public Health authorities in lieu of the approved societies, the raising of maternity benefit to £5, and other changes.
[67] B. Kirkman Gray, _History of Philanthropy_.
[68] _Daily News and Leader_, June 24, 1915. It may be remarked here parenthetically, though not strictly germane to the subject, that not only the local authorities, but the Departments, even the War Office itself, might utilise the services of professional women more freely than they do, with great advantage to themselves. Women have among other things a very sharp eye for the detection of fraud and corruption. It was to the initiative and energy of one woman that the greatest improvements in the organisation of the Army Hospital Service in the nineteenth century were due. It is admitted that no change in the administration of the Factory Department has been so fruitful for good as the appointment of women factory inspectors. Why, then, are not professional women called in to aid in the organisation of commissariat, the inspection of clothing stores, the "housekeeping" of the Army, especially in the case of the needs of raw recruits? Incalculable waste, diversified here and there by actual lack of food, is reported from the camps. The help of expert women might here be of enormous value, and not only avoid waste, but ensure the provision of more wholesome food and more comfortable clothing. Some valuable hints on this subject are to be derived from an article by Mrs. Janet Courtney in the _Fortnightly Review_, February 1915, "The War and Women's Employment."
[69] _The War and Democracy._ Introduction by A. E. Zimmern, p. 14. London, 1914.
[70] It should be observed that the first proprietors of some cotton mills, alarmed by the consequences of obliging their servants to work incessantly, have shut up their mills in the night.
[71] A certain manufacturer of worsted threatened a sister of ours, whom he employed, that he would send all his jersey to be spun at the mill; and further insulted her with the pretended superiority of that work. She having more spirit than discretion, stirred up the sisterhood, and they stirred up all the men they could influence (not a few) to go and destroy the mills erected in and near Leicester, and this is the origin of the late riots there.
[72] It is, however, important to mention that cotton mills are materially improved of late years in most of these particulars, and that in some mills they exist in a much less degree than others, which shows them not to be essential and inherent.
[73] It is a curious circumstance, and one which amply merits attentive consideration, that the fecundity of females employed in manufactories seems to be considerably diminished by their occupation and habits; for not only are their families generally smaller than those of agricultural labourers, but their children are born at more distant intervals. Thus the average interval which elapses between the birth of each child in the former case is two years and one month, as we have found upon minute enquiry, while, in country districts, we believe, it seldom exceeds eighteen months. The causes of these facts we have at present no space to enlarge upon.
[74] The extracts are slightly compressed in transcription.
[75] The barber knotter is a small appliance worn on the hand to assist the work of winding.
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