Part 5

14. OLEOMARGARINE.--The best substitute for butter and the one most largely used is called oleomargarine, which in the United States alone constitutes about two and 1/2 per cent. of all the fat used as butter. This fat is called by various other names, such as _margarine,_ and _butterine_, but oleomargarine is the name by which the United States authorities recognize the product. It is made by churning fats other than butter fat with milk or cream until a butterlike consistency is obtained. Originally, pure beef fat was employed for this purpose, and while beef fat is used to a great extent at present, lard, cottonseed oil, coconut oil, and peanut oil are also used. Whatever fats are selected are churned with milk, cream, and, for the finest grades, a considerable percentage of the very best pure butter. After they are churned, the oleomargarine is worked, salted, and packed in the same manner as butter.

15. The manufacture and sale of butter substitutes are controlled by laws that, while they do not specify the kind of fat to be used, state that all mixtures of butter with other fats must be sold as oleomargarine. They also require that a tax of 10 cents a pound be paid on all artificially colored oleomargarine; therefore, while coloring matter is used in some cases, this product is usually sold without coloring. In such an event, coloring matter is given with each pound of oleomargarine that is sold. Before using the oleomargarine, this coloring matter is simply worked into the fat until it is evenly colored.

16. RENOVATED BUTTER.--Another substitute that is sometimes used to take the place of the best grades of butter is renovated, or process, butter. This is obtained by purifying butter that is dirty and rancid and that contains all sorts of foreign material and then rechurning it with fresh cream or milk. The purifying process consists in melting the butter, removing the scum from the top, as well as the buttermilk, brine, and foreign materials that settle, and then blowing air through the fat to remove any odors that it might contain. Butter that is thus purified is replaced on the market, but in some states the authorities have seen fit to restrict its sale. While such restrictions are without doubt justifiable, it is possible to buy butter that is more objectionable than renovated, or process, butter, but that has no restriction on it.

17. METHOD OF TESTING BUTTER SUBSTITUTES.--Very often oleomargarine and process butter bear such a close resemblance to genuine butter that it is almost impossible to detect the difference. However, there is a simple test by which these substitutes can always be distinguished from butter, and this should be applied whenever there is any doubt about the matter. To make this test, place the fat in a tablespoon or a small dish and heat it directly over the flame until it boils, stirring it occasionally to assist in the melting. If it is oleomargarine or process butter, it will sputter noisily and take on a curdled appearance; whereas, if it is butter, it will melt and even boil without sputtering although it foams to a certain extent.

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CHEESE

CHARACTERISTICS AND CARE OF CHEESE

18. ORIGIN, PRODUCTION, AND USE OF CHEESE.--Cheese is a product that is manufactured from the solids of milk, and it provides a valuable food. The making of cheese was known in ancient times, it having probably originated through a desire to utilize an oversupply of milk. When cheese was first made, the fact that bacteria were present was not known, nor were the reasons for the spoiling of milk understood; but it was learned that milk can be kept if most of its water is removed. This discovery was very important, for it led to various methods of making cheese and proved that cheese making was a satisfactory and convenient means of storing nourishment in a form that was not bulky and that would keep for long periods of time. From a very small beginning, the different methods of making cheese became popular, until at the present time more than three hundred varieties are made and their manufacture forms one of the large industries of the world.

In the United States, nearly all the cheese used up to about 50 years ago was made on farms, and to a great extent by housewives, but about that time a factory for the making of this product was started in the state of New York, and it proved a profitable enterprise. From this beginning, the business of making cheese commercially in this country has grown until now cheese is almost entirely a factory-made product, in the manufacture of which the states of New York and Wisconsin lead.

19. In either the commercial or the home production of cheese, skim milk with all or part of the cream removed is used for some varieties, while whole milk is used for others, the composition depending largely on the kind of milk that is employed. Rennet is added to the milk to coagulate it, and then the curd, from which nearly all the water is removed, is allowed to ripen. To produce characteristic odors, flavors, and consistency, various coloring and flavoring materials, as well as bacteria, are added to the curd. The action of these bacteria is really the chief factor in the making of cheese and they are therefore not only desirable but necessary. Non-desirable bacteria, however, result in the formation of bad odors, flavors, and gases in the finished product and these must be carefully guarded against by cheese makers.

20. Cheese offers a valuable source of nutriment for the body, because its food value ranks high. As is shown in Fig. 3, the food value in 1 pound of cheese is equivalent to that in 2 pounds of beef, that in 24 eggs, or that in 4 pounds of fish. The use of cheese, however, is not nearly so great as its food value warrants, the amount used in the United States per capita being only about 3-1/2 pounds annually. This is a condition that should be overcome, for there is a large variety of ways in which cheese can be used to advantage in the diet. When eaten raw, it is very appetizing, and when used with soups, sauces, and foods that have a bland taste, it lends additional flavor and makes an especially attractive dish. In addition, the fact that it is an economical food and can be conveniently kept and stored should recommend its frequent use.

21. COMPOSITION OF CHEESE.--Since cheese is a product of milk, it is somewhat similar to milk in composition, but the change that occurs in the formation of cheese causes some differences. Nearly all the water present in milk is removed during the manufacture of cheese, so that this product becomes a concentrated food made up of all the nourishment that milk contains except small amounts of albumin, milk sugar, and mineral matter. These, because they are in solution in the water, are lost when the whey is separated from the curd. The food substances that occur in the largest amounts are fat and protein in the form of casein, which is the tissue-building material of milk. Cheese made from milk that contains some cream has in it a greater amount of fat than that made from completely skimmed milk. Besides these two chief food substances, cheese contains a small amount of milk sugar, mineral matter, and water.

22. On account of the large quantity of protein found in cheese, this food can readily take the place of meat in the diet; in fact, it has some decided advantages over meat. As has been pointed out, cheese yields more than twice as much food value as an equal weight of beef. Then, too, the buying and care of cheese are much simpler matters than the buying and care of meat. As it does not require the low temperature that meat requires and does not spoil so readily, it can be bought in considerable quantity and used as desired without danger of spoiling and loss. In addition, the use of cheese as food does not require so much skill in preparation as meat does, nor is there loss of flavor and nutriment in its preparation, as is often the case with meat.

23. QUALITY OF CHEESE.--Every variety of cheese has its own standard and quality, some being hard and dry, others moist, and still others very soft. The difference in quality is due to the way in which the curd is coagulated, the amount of pressure that is put on it, and the ripening of the cheese. The holes that often occur in cheese and give it a porous appearance are formed by gas, which is the product of the growth of bacteria. A large number of very small holes in cheese indicate that the milk used to make it was not clean and contained many kinds of bacteria. This condition could be overcome by the use of absolutely clean milk; indeed, milk of this kind is as necessary for the production of good cheese as it is for the making of good butter. Certain cheeses, such as Limburger and Roquefort, have a typical odor and flavor, the odor being due to bacteria and the flavor to mold. These are carefully grown and introduced into the cheese during its manufacture.

24. CARE OF CHEESE.--The very strong odor and flavor that characterize cheese make it necessary that care be given to cheese in the home in order to prevent it from coming in contact with other foods and transmitting its odor and flavor to them. The best place to keep cheese, particularly the soft varieties, is in the refrigerator, where it should be placed in a closed receptacle and kept as far as possible from foods that are easily tainted. It is well to avoid a damp place for the keeping of cheese, as mold frequently develops on the outside when too much moisture is present; but in case mold does appear it can be removed by cutting a thin slice from the side on which it has grown. On the other hand, cheese that is kept in a dry place becomes hard and dry unless it is wrapped in oiled paper or a damp cloth. However, such cheese need not be thrown away, for there are numerous uses, particularly in cooking, to which it can be put.

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KINDS OF CHEESE

CLASSIFICATION OF VARIETIES

25. The cheese used in the United States may be included under two leading classes, namely, _foreign cheese_ and _domestic cheese_. Since the foreign cheeses are imported, they are more expensive than the cheeses made here, and should not be bought if cheese is to be used as an economical article of food. They are valuable chiefly for their flavor and are generally bought for this reason. The domestic cheeses can be used in larger quantities, for, besides being less expensive, they are usually of a milder type and are more easily digested. To enable the housewife to become familiar with the principal varieties of each of these classes, a discussion of them, including their names, characteristics, and, in some cases, their use and the method of making, is here given. In addition, there are shown in colors, in Fig. 4, a large number of cheeses, together with a print of butter _o_, which serves to illustrate the irregular surface that is exposed when good butter is broken apart.

IMPORTED CHEESE

26. Each of the European countries has originated its own peculiar kind of cheese, which remains representative of a certain people or locality. The majority of these cheeses have met with so much favor in the United States that large quantities of them are continually imported. A few of them have been copied here with success, but others have not been successfully made. While these are not in such common use as the domestic cheeses, it is well for every one to know their names and the characteristics by which they can be identified.

27. ENGLISH CHEESE.--Chief among the kinds of cheeses made in England is CHEDDAR CHEESE, which is illustrated at _a_, Fig. 4. It is rich, double-thick cream cheese, ranging from a pale to a dark yellow, although when uncolored it may be white. Such cheese, when fresh, has a milk flavor, but when it is well ripened it has a characteristic sharp taste. New Cheddar cheese is soft, but not waxy, in texture and may readily be shaved or broken into small pieces; when it is well ripened, it may be grated. English Cheddar cheese is not unlike AMERICAN CHEDDAR CHEESE, or, as it is commonly called, _American cream cheese_, which is shown by _b_. In fact the American variety is made according to the method used for the English. Owing to its characteristics, flavor, and abundance, Cheddar cheese, both English and American, is the kind that is used most extensively in the United States.

ENGLISH DAIRY CHEESE, shown at _d_, is similar to Cheddar cheese, although it has a reddish color and, on account of the method of manufacture, it is harder. This kind of cheese lends itself well to cooking, as it may be easily grated.

CHESHIRE CHEESE, a well-known English variety, is a dry cream cheese made from whole cow's milk. It is deep yellow or red in color, similar in flavor to Cheddar cheese, and is used in much the same manner.

STILTON CHEESE, shown at _m_, is a hard cheese made from cow's milk to which cream has been added and which is coagulated with rennet. Mold is introduced into this cheese, so that it resembles Roquefort cheese, which is shown at _j_.

28. HOLLAND CHEESE.--The variety of cheese shown at _e_, Fig. 4, is known as EDAM CHEESE. It is a hard rennet cheese of a red color and is mild in flavor. This kind of cheese is molded into the shape of a ball, the outside of which is usually dyed red, and will keep for a long period of time. Edam cheese is one of the important products of the Netherlands, and while it is seldom used in cookery in the homes of this country, it is served at the table. Usually a section of the top is cut off to serve as a lid while the inside is scooped out as needed. Sometimes, after most of the cheese has been removed, the hollow shell is stuffed with macaroni or rice that has been cooked and seasoned and the food then baked in the shell.

29. FRENCH CHEESES.--Among the French cheeses, the variety called GRUYERE CHEESE, which is shown at _f_, Fig. 4, is well liked. It is usually made of skim milk, has a yellow color and a mild, sweetish flavor, and contains large holes like those found in Swiss and Emmenthal cheeses, varieties that are very similar to it. Like these cheeses, Gruyere cheese may be used in cooking or served without cooking, being used considerably in the making of sandwiches.

BRIE CHEESE is a French variety of very soft cheese, with a strong flavor and odor. It is made from whole or partly skimmed cow's milk coagulated by means of rennet. This kind of cheese is used mostly as an accompaniment to other foods.

CAMEMBERT CHEESE, which is shown at _h_, is also a soft cheese. It is made by practically the same process as Brie cheese and is used in the same way. This cheese has a typical odor. Its rind is thick and dry, but its center is very soft, being sometimes almost liquid.

NEUFCHATEL CHEESE, which is shown at _i_, is a soft rennet cheese made from cow's milk. It is made at Neufchatel-en-Bray, France, and not at Neufchatel, Switzerland. This variety of cheese is wrapped in tin-foil and sold in small packages. It is used chiefly for salads, sandwiches, etc. As it does not keep well after the package is opened, the entire contents should be used at one time.

ROQUEFORT CHEESE, which is shown at _j_, is a hard, highly flavored cheese made from sheep's milk coagulated with rennet. It has a marbled appearance, which is due to a greenish mold that is introduced. Roquefort cheese is frequently served with crackers at the end of a meal, and is well liked by many persons.

30. ITALIAN CHEESES.--From Italy is imported a cheese, called PARMESAN CHEESE, that is used extensively for flavoring soups and macaroni dishes. This cheese, which is shown at _g_, Fig. 4, is very hard and granular and, provided it is well made, it will keep for years. Owing to its characteristics, it may be easily grated. It can be bought by the pound and grated as it is needed, or it can be secured already grated in bottles.

GORGONZOLA, another Italian cheese, is shown at _k_. It is not unlike Roquefort in appearance and in use, but it is made from whole cow's milk coagulated with rennet. Into this cheese is also introduced a mold that gives its center a streaked or mottled appearance.

31. SWISS CHEESES.--Possibly the best known cheese imported from Switzerland is the variety known as SWISS, or SWITZER, CHEESE. This kind of cheese has different names, depending on the district of Switzerland in which it is made. Nevertheless all of them are similar and have a mild, sweet flavor. Swiss cheese may be readily recognized by its pale yellow color and the presence of large holes, although it resembles Gruyere cheese very closely.

EMMENTHAL CHEESE is a variety of fairly hard cheese that originated in Switzerland, but is now made in many other countries. It is similar to Swiss cheese, being made from whole cow's milk and characterized by large holes about 3 inches apart.

SAPSAGO CHEESE, shown at _n_, Fig. 4, is a skim-milk cheese made in Switzerland. It is a very hard cheese, and therefore suitable for grating. In the process of making this cheese, melilot, a clover-like herb, is added, and this gives the cheese a green color and a peculiar flavor.

32. BELGIAN CHEESE.--A cheese that originated in Belgium, but is now manufactured in other countries, is the variety known as LIMBURG, or LIMBURGER, CHEESE, cheese, which is shown at _l_, Fig. 4. It is a soft rennet cheese made from whole cow's milk. It is very strong in taste and smell, due to putrefactive germs that are added to the milk in its manufacture.

DOMESTIC CHEESE

33. In the United States, efforts that have been exerted to make cheeses similar to some of those produced in Europe have to a certain extent been successful. American cheese makers have succeeded in making several soft cream cheeses that resemble Neufchatel, some of which are spiced or flavored with pimiento, olives, etc. In addition, Limburg and Swiss cheeses have been successfully manufactured in Wisconsin, and Brie, Neufchatel, and Camembert have been copied and are produced in New York. Pineapple cheese, while of American origin, is really very much like English Cheddar cheese, except that it is harder. But while these fancy cheeses are desired by some persons and have a moderately large sale, the cheese for which there is the most demand in America is the so-called American Cheddar cheese, which, as has been stated, is made according to the method used for English Cheddar cheese.

34. AMERICAN CHEDDAR CHEESE.--Since American Cheddar cheese is the kind that is commonly used in this country, the way in which it is made will be well to know. The milk used for this kind of cheese is first inspected as to cleanliness and the extent of fermentation it has undergone, and when these points are ascertained, it is _ripened_; that is, allowed to sour to a certain degree of acidity. At this stage, coloring matter is added, after which the milk is prepared for setting by bringing it to a certain temperature. With the temperature at the right point, rennet is added to coagulate the milk, or form the curd. The milk is then allowed to remain undisturbed until the action of the rennet is at a certain point, when the curd is cut into little cube-shaped pieces by drawing two sets of knives through it and thus is separated from the whey. As soon as the curd is cut, the temperature of the mass is raised to help make the curd firm and to cause the little cubes to retain their firmness, and during the entire heating process the whole mass is stirred constantly to assist in the separation from the whey. When the curd is sufficiently firm, the whey is removed and the particles of curd are allowed to adhere and form into a solid mass. If necessary, the curd is cut again into small pieces to get rid of the excess whey; but if the curd is too dry, the pieces must be piled up until they are four or five deep. During this process, which is known as the _cheddaring_ of the cheese, the curd is treated until it is of the proper texture to be _milled_, that is, put into a mill and ground into small pieces. The object of milling the curd is to cut it into pieces small enough to permit of uniform salting and the further escape of whey. When the curd has been brought to this point, it is salted and then pressed into molds. Finally, it is wrapped and cured, or ripened.

35. BRICK CHEESE.--Another American cheese that seems to meet with a popular demand is brick cheese. This kind of cheese, which is illustrated at _c_, Fig. 4, gets its name from the fact that it is pressed into "bricks" under the weight of one or two bricks. It is made from sweet milk, coagulated with rennet, cut with curd knives, and heated in the whey to firm it. Brick cheese is mild in flavor and of a moderately close texture. It is used chiefly as an accompaniment to other foods.

36. AMERICAN HOME-MADE CHEESE.--The making of Cheddar cheese and brick cheese is, of course, done commercially, but there is a kind of cheese that can be made very conveniently in the home. This home-made cheese, which is generally known as COTTAGE CHEESE, affords an excellent way in which to utilize left-over sour milk, particularly if a quart or more can be obtained at one time; smaller quantities can generally be used for baking purposes.

If properly made, such cheese is very digestible. As it can be seasoned and served in a variety of ways, it makes a delightful addition to lunches or other light meals in which a protein dish, such as meat, is undesirable. Skim milk does very well for this kind of cheese, so that if the sour milk that is to be used has cream on it, the cream should be removed before the cheese is made; otherwise, it will remain in the whey and be lost. In case cream is desired to improve the texture and flavor of the cheese, it should be added after the cheese is made.

37. To make cottage cheese, allow a quantity of sour milk to clabber, that is, become curdled, and then place it on the back of the stove in a thick vessel, such as a crock, until the whey begins to appear on the top, turning it occasionally so that it will heat very slowly and evenly. Do not allow the temperature to rise above 90 degrees Fahrenheit, or the curd will become tough and dry. Remember that the two things on which the success of this product depends are the flavor of the milk used and the proper heating of it. No difficulty will be encountered in the heating of the milk if a coal or a wood stove is used, but in case a gas stove must be used, the vessel containing the milk should be placed in a larger one containing warm water and the milk should be heated in this manner until the curd and the whey begin to separate. At this point, pour off all the whey possible, and turn the curd into a cloth bag or a colander lined with cloth, as shown in Fig. 5, and allow any remaining whey to drip out. If, after the whey is removed, the curd tastes sour, wash it with warm water and allow it to drip again. Then season it with salt to suit the taste and, provided cream is desired, add it at this time, using sweet or sour cream. To work in the cream, press it into the curd with a spoon until the cheese is quite smooth.

Cheese made in this way may be flavored with anything desirable. For instance, chopped pimiento, parsley, olives, or nuts improve the flavor of the cheese very much and make a very appetizing combination. The dry curd mixed with any of these makes a delightful salad when it is pressed into balls, garnished with lettuce, and served with salad dressing.