Chapter 12

84. Although, as is shown by the recipes that have been given, cereals may have a place in practically all meals that the housewife is called on to prepare, they are used more frequently for breakfast than for any other meal. When a cereal forms a part of this meal, it should, as a rule, be served immediately after the fruit, provided the breakfast is served in courses. Many persons, of course, like fresh fruit served with cooked or dry cereal, and, in such an event, the fruit and cereal courses should be combined. A banana sliced over flakes or a few spoonfuls of berries or sliced peaches placed on top afford a pleasing change from the usual method of serving cereals. Another way in which to lend variety to the cereal and at the same time add nourishment to the diet is to serve a poached egg on top of the shredded-wheat biscuit or in a nest of corn flakes, especially if they have been previously heated. In fact, any of the dry cereals become more appetizing if they are heated thoroughly in a slow oven and then allowed to cool, as this process freshens them by driving off the moisture that they absorb and that makes them tough.

To add to both dry and cooked cereals protein and fat, or the food elements in which they are not so high, milk or cream is usually served with them. Of these dairy products, which may be served hot or cold, milk adds more protein than cream, and cream more fat than milk. Some persons, however, who do not care for milk and cream or cannot take them, substitute a little butter for them or find fruit juice a very good accompaniment, especially to a dry cereal. Sugar is generally served with both kinds of cereals, as the majority of persons prefer them slightly sweet; but there is no logical reason for its use except to add flavor.

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ITALIAN PASTES

PREPARATION, VARIETIES, AND COMPOSITION

85. In addition to the cereals that have already been discussed, macaroni and foods of a similar nature are entitled to a place in this Section, because they are made from wheat flour and are therefore truly cereal products. These foods, which are commonly referred to as ITALIAN PASTES, originated in Italy. In that country they were made from a flour called _semolina_, which is derived from a native wheat that is very hard and contains more protein than is required for the making of ordinary dough mixtures. Later, when the manufacture of these foods was taken up in the United States, the flour for them had to be imported from Italy; but it has since been discovered that flour made from the variety of wheat called _durum_, which is grown in the spring-wheat territory of this country, can be used for producing these pastes. In fact, this kind of flour has proved to be so successful that it now takes the place of what was formerly imported.

86. To produce the Italian pastes, the wheat, from which the bran has been removed, is ground into flour. This flour is made into a stiff dough, which is rolled into sheets and forced over rods, usually of metal, or made into a mass and forced over rods, and allowed to dry in the air. When sufficiently dry, the rods are removed, leaving slender tubes, or sticks, that have holes through the center. Because of the manufacturing processes involved in the production of these foods for market, they are higher in price than some cereals, but their value lies in the fact that they are practically imperishable and are easily prepared and digested.

87. Italian pastes are of several varieties, chief among which are _macaroni_, _spaghetti_, and _vermicelli_. Macaroni is the largest in circumference; spaghetti, a trifle smaller; and vermicelli, very small and without a hole through the center. These pastes and variations of them are made from the same dough; therefore, the tests for determining the quality of one applies to all of them. These tests pertain to their color, the way in which they break, and the manner in which they cook. To be right, they should be of an even, creamy color; if they look gray or are white or streaked with white, they are of inferior quality. When they are broken into pieces, they should break off perfectly straight; if they split up lengthwise, they contain weak places due to streaks. All the varieties should, upon boiling, hold their shape and double in size; in case they break into pieces and flatten, they are of poor quality.

88. Since the Italian pastes are made from wheat, their food substances are similar to those of wheat. As in other wheat products, protein is found in them in the form of gluten, but, owing to the variety of wheat used for them, it occurs in greater proportion in these foods than in most wheat products. In fact, the Italian pastes are so high in protein, or tissue-building material, that they very readily take the place of meat. Unlike meat, however, they contain carbohydrates in the form of wheat starch. They do not contain much fat or mineral salts, though, being lower in these food substances than many of the other foods made from wheat.

RECIPES FOR ITALIAN PASTES

89. In nearly all recipes for macaroni, spaghetti, and vermicelli, as well as the numerous varieties of these foods, the first steps in their preparation for the table are practically the same, for all of these foods must be cooked to a certain point and in a certain way before they can be used in the numerous ways possible to prepare them. Therefore, in order that success may be met in the preparation of the dishes that are made from these foods, these underlying principles should be thoroughly understood.

In the first place, it should be borne in mind that while the time required to cook the Italian pastes depends on their composition and dryness, the average length of time is about 30 minutes. Another important thing to remember is that they should always be put to cook in boiling water that contains 2 teaspoonfuls of salt to each cupful of macaroni, spaghetti, or vermicelli, and that they should be kept boiling until the cooking is done, for if the pieces are not in constant motion they will settle and burn. Tests may be applied to determine whether these foods have been cooked sufficiently. Thus, if a fork passes through them easily or they crush readily on being pressed between the fingers and the thumb, they are done, but as long as they feel hard and elastic they have not cooked enough.

In the majority of recipes here given, macaroni is specified, but spaghetti, vermicelli, or any of the fancy Italian pastes may be substituted for the macaroni if one of them is preferred. It should also be remembered that any of these, when cut into small pieces, may be used in soups or served with sauce or gravy.

90. MACARONI WITH CREAM SAUCE.--Possibly the simplest way in which to prepare macaroni is with cream sauce, as is explained in the accompanying recipe. Such a sauce not only increases the food value of any Italian paste, but improves its flavor. Macaroni prepared in this way may be used as the principal dish of a light meal, as it serves to take the place of meat.

MACARONI WITH CREAM SAUCE (Sufficient to Serve Six)

1-1/2 c. macaroni 3 qt. boiling water 3 tsp. salt 1/4 c. crumbs

CREAM SAUCE

2 Tb. butter 2 Tb. flour 1 tsp. salt 1/8 tsp. pepper 1 1/2 c. milk

Break the macaroni into inch lengths, add it to the salted boiling water, and cook it until it is tender. To prepare the sauce, melt the butter in a saucepan, add the flour, salt, and pepper, stir until smooth, and gradually add the milk, which must be hot, stirring rapidly so that no lumps form. Cook the cream sauce until it thickens and then add it to the macaroni. Pour all into a baking dish, sprinkle the bread or cracker crumbs over the top, dot with butter, and bake until the crumbs are brown. Serve hot.

91. MACARONI WITH EGGS.--Since macaroni is high in protein, it takes the place of meat in whatever form it is served, but when it is prepared with eggs it becomes an unusually good meat substitute. Therefore, when eggs are added as in the following recipe, no meat should be served in the same meal.

MACARONI WITH EGGS (Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 c. macaroni 2 qt. boiling water 2 tsp. salt 1-1/2 c. milk 2 Tb. butter 2 Tb. flour 1 tsp. salt 1/8 tsp. pepper 4 hard-boiled eggs 1/4 c. crumbs

Break the macaroni into inch lengths, add it to the boiling salted water, and cook it until tender. Make a cream, or white, sauce of the milk, butter, flour, salt, and pepper as explained in the recipe given in Art. 90. When the macaroni is tender, drain it and arrange a layer on the bottom of a baking dish, with a layer of sliced, hard-boiled eggs on top. Fill the dish with alternate layers of macaroni and eggs, pour the sauce over all, and sprinkle the crumbs over the top. Then place the dish in the oven and bake the food until the crumbs are brown. Serve hot.

92. Macaroni With Tomato and Bacon.--Macaroni alone is somewhat tasteless, so that, as has been pointed out, something is usually added to give this food a more appetizing flavor. In the recipe here given, tomatoes and bacon are used for this purpose. Besides improving the flavor, the bacon supplies the macaroni with fat, a food substance in which it is low.

MACARONI WITH TOMATO AND BACON (Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 c. macaroni 2 qt. boiling water 2 tsp. salt 2 c. canned tomatoes 8 thin slices bacon

Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it in the boiling salted water until it is tender. Place a layer of the cooked macaroni on the bottom of a baking dish; over this layer put 1 cupful of the tomatoes, and on top of them spread four slices of bacon. Then add another layer of the macaroni, the other cupful of tomatoes, and a third layer of macaroni. On top of this layer, place the remaining four slices of bacon, and then bake the food for one half hour in a slow oven. Serve hot.

93. Macaroni With Cheese.--Cheese is combined with macaroni probably more often than any other food. It supplies considerable flavor to the macaroni and at the same time provides fat and additional protein. The cooking operation is practically the same as that just given for macaroni with tomatoes and bacon.

MACARONI WITH CHEESE (Sufficient to Serve Six)

1-1/2 c. macaroni 3 qt. boiling water 3 tsp. salt 1-1/2 Tb. butter 1-1/2 Tb. flour 1 tsp. salt 1/8 tsp. pepper 1/8 tsp. paprika 1-1/2 c. milk 1 c. grated or finely cut cheese 1/4 c. crumbs

Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it until it is tender in the 3 quarts of boiling water to which 3 teaspoonfuls of salt has been added. Melt the butter in a saucepan, add the flour, the 1 teaspoonful of salt, the pepper, and the paprika, stir until smooth, and then gradually add the milk, which should be hot. Allow to cook until it thickens. Arrange the cooked macaroni in layers, pouring the sauce and sprinkling salt and cheese over each layer. Then cover the top layer with the crumbs and bake the food in a moderate oven for one half hour. Serve hot.

94. Macaroni With Cheese and Tomato.--Although the food combinations given are very satisfactory, a dish that is extremely appetizing to many persons may be made by combining both cheese and tomato with macaroni. Such a nutritious combination, which is illustrated in Fig. 5, can be used as the principal dish of a heavy meal.

MACARONI WITH CHEESE AND TOMATO (Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 c. macaroni 1 c. grated cheese 2 qt. boiling water 2 Tb. butter 2 tsp. salt 1/8 tsp. pepper 1 1/2 c. canned tomatoes 1 tsp. salt

Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it until it is tender in the boiling water to which 2 teaspoonfuls of salt has been added. Put a layer of the cooked macaroni on the bottom of a baking dish, pour one-half of the tomatoes and one-third of the cheese over it, dot with butter, and sprinkle with salt and pepper. Then add another layer of macaroni, the remainder of the tomatoes, one-third more of the cheese, butter, salt, and pepper. Finally, arrange another layer of macaroni, put the remaining cheese and some butter on top of it, and bake the food for 1/2 hour in a moderate oven. Serve hot.

95. Macaroni Italian Style.--If small quantities of fried or boiled ham remain after a meal, they can be used with macaroni to make a very tasty dish known as macaroni Italian style. As ham is a highly seasoned meat, it improves the flavor of the macaroni and at the same time adds nutrition to the dish.

MACARONI ITALIAN STYLE (Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 c. macaroni 2 qt. boiling water 2 tsp. salt 2 Tb. butter 2 Tb. flour 1-1/2 c. scalded milk 2/3 c. grated cheese 1 tsp. salt 1/2 tsp. paprika 1/2 c. finely chopped, cold boiled ham 1/4 c. crumbs

Break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it in the boiling water to which has been added 2 teaspoonfuls of salt. Drain, and then reheat it in a white sauce made of the butter, flour, and milk. Add the cheese and season with salt and paprika. Arrange in layers in a baking dish, placing the cold ham between each two layers of macaroni and having the top layer of macaroni, sprinkle the crumbs on top of the upper layer, and bake the food until the crumbs are brown. Garnish with parsley and serve.

96. MACARONI AND KIDNEY BEANS.--The combination of canned kidney beans and macaroni is a rather unusual one, but it makes a very appetizing dish, especially when canned tomatoes are added, as in the recipe here given.

MACARONI AND KIDNEY BEANS (Sufficient to Serve Eight)

1 c. macaroni 2 qt. water 2 tsp. salt 2 Tb. butter 2 Tb. flour 3/4 c. hot milk 1/2 c. canned tomatoes 1 tsp. salt 1/4 tsp. pepper 1 c. canned kidney beans

Cook the macaroni in the salted water until it is tender and then drain it. Prepare the sauce by melting the butter in a saucepan, rubbing the flour into it until a smooth paste is formed, and then adding slowly the hot milk. Cook this sauce for 5 minutes. Force the tomato through a sieve, turn it into the hot sauce, and season all with salt and pepper. Pour the sauce over the macaroni and the kidney beans, and then heat all together. When the food is thoroughly heated, turn it into a dish and serve.

97. SPAGHETTI WITH CHEESE AND TOMATO SAUCE.--The accompanying recipe for spaghetti with cheese and tomato sauce will serve to illustrate that this form of Italian paste may be prepared in the same manner as macaroni; that is, to show how simple it is to substitute one kind of Italian paste for another. Any of these pastes, as has been mentioned, is especially appetizing when prepared with cheese and tomato.

SPAGHETTI WITH CHEESE AND TOMATO SAUCE (Sufficient to Serve Six)

1 c. spaghetti 2 Tb. butter 2 qt. boiling water 2 Tb. flour 2 tsp. salt 1/2 c. grated cheese 1 can tomatoes 1 tsp. salt 1 small onion, chopped 1/4 tsp. pepper 1/2 c. water

Boil the spaghetti in the 2 quarts of boiling water to which has been added 2 teaspoonfuls of salt, and after it is tender drain off the water. Then proceed to make the sauce. Boil the tomatoes and the chopped onion in the 1/2 cupful of water for 10 minutes. Strain this mixture and to it add the butter and the flour, which should first be mixed with a little cold water. Cook this until it thickens and then add the cheese, 1 teaspoonful of salt, and the pepper. Pour the entire mixture over the cooked spaghetti, reheat, and serve.

98. Left-Over Italian Pastes.--No cooked Italian paste of any kind should ever be wasted. Any left-over macaroni, spaghetti, or vermicelli can be reheated and served as it was originally or it can be used in soups. If a sufficient amount is left after a meal, a good plan is to utilize it in croquettes. To make such croquettes, chop the left-over food fine and hold it together with a thick white sauce or with raw eggs. Then form it into croquettes of the desired shape, roll these in bread or cracker crumbs, and brown them in butter.

BREAKFAST MENU

99. A well-planned breakfast menu is here given, with the intention that it be prepared and used. This menu, as will be observed, calls for at least one of the dishes that have been described, as well as some that have not. Directions for the latter, however, are given, so that no difficulty will be experienced in preparing the menu. After the recipes have been followed out carefully, it will be necessary to report on the success that is had with each dish and to send this report in with the answers to the Examination Questions at the end of this Section. The recipes are intended to serve six persons, but they may be changed if the family consists of fewer or more persons by merely regulating the amounts to suit the required number, as is explained elsewhere.

MENU

Berries and Cream or Oranges Cream of Wheat or Rolled Oats and Cream Scrambled Eggs Buttered Toast Cocoa or Coffee

SCRAMBLED EGGS

5 eggs 1/2 c. milk 1/2 tsp. salt 2 Tb. butter 1/8 tsp. pepper

Beat the eggs slightly and add the salt, pepper, and milk. Heat a pan, put in the butter, and, when it is melted, turn in the mixture. Cook this mixture until it thickens as much as desired, being careful to stir it and to scrape it from the bottom of the pan, so that it will not burn. Remove from the pan and serve hot.

BUTTERED TOAST

Bread for toasting should as a rule be 48 hours or more old. Cut the desired number of slices, making each about 1/4 to 1/2 inch thick. Place the slices on a toaster over a bed of clear coals or on a broiler under a slow gas flame. Turn the bread frequently until it assumes an even light brown on both sides. Remove from the heat, spread each slice with butter, and serve while hot and crisp.

COCOA

2 c. scalded milk 3 Tb. cocoa 3 Tb. sugar 1/4 tsp. salt 2-1/2 c. boiling water

Scald the milk in a double boiler. Mix the cocoa, sugar, and salt. Stir the boiling water into this mixture gradually, and let it boil for several minutes over the fire. Then turn the mixture into the hot milk in the double boiler, and beat all with an egg beater for several minutes. A drop of vanilla added to the cocoa just before serving adds to its flavor.

BOILED COFFEE

Scald a clean coffee pot, and into it put 12 level tablespoonfuls of ground coffee. Add several crushed egg shells or the white of one egg, pour in 1 cupful of cold water, and shake until the whole is well mixed. Add 5 cupfuls of freshly boiling water and put over the fire to boil. After the coffee has boiled for 5 minutes, pour 1/4 cupful of cold water down the spout. Allow it to stand for a few minutes where it will keep hot and then serve.

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CEREALS

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

(1) (_a_) Mention the eight cereals that are used for food. (_b_) How may the universal consumption of cereals be accounted for?

(2) (_a_) Explain why cereals and cereal products are economical foods. (_b_) What factors should be considered in the selection of cereals?

(3) (_a_) Why are cereals not easily contaminated? (_b_) What care in storage should be given to both prepared and unprepared cereals?

(4) (_a_) Explain briefly the composition of cereals. (_b_) Describe the structure of cereal grains.

(5) What food substance is found in the greatest proportion in cereals?

(6) What characteristics of cereals make them valuable in the diet?

(7) What material, besides the food substances, is always present in cereals, and what are its purposes?

(8) What is the purpose of cooking cereals?

(9) (_a_) What occurs when starch is cooked in a liquid? (_b_) Describe the process of setting a cereal.

(10) (_a_) Mention the various methods of cooking cereals, (_b_) What are the advantages of the double-boiler method?

(11) (_a_) What influences the proportion of water required and the length of time necessary to cook cereals? (_b_) Is it an advantage to cook cereals for a long time? Tell why.

(12) Mention the cereals that you would use in winter and tell why you would use them.

(13) (_a_) Of what advantage is it to add dates to cream of wheat? (_b_) Mention some of the ways in which left-over wheat cereals may be utilized.

(14) (_a_) Explain the three methods of cooking rice, giving the proportion of water to rice in each one. (_b_) How should rice grains look when they are properly cooked?

(15) Mention several ways in which to utilize left-over rolled oats.

(16) (_a_) What advantages have ready-to-eat cereals over unprepared ones? (_b_) Tell why cereals that have been toasted are said to be predigested.

(17) (_a_) What is the advantage of serving milk or cream with cereals? (_b_) How may variety be secured in the serving of cereals?

(18) (_a_) How are Italian pastes made? (_b_) Mention and describe the three principal varieties of Italian paste, (_c_) What tests can be applied to judge the quality of these foods?

(19) (_a_) Explain the first steps in cooking macaroni, (_b_) How much does macaroni increase upon being boiled?

(20) (_a_) Why may macaroni be substituted for meat in the diet? (_b_) What foods used in the preparation of macaroni make it a better meat substitute?

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REPORT ON MENU

After trying out the breakfast menu given in the text, send with your answers to the Examination Questions a report of your success. In making out your report, simply write the name of the food and describe its condition by means of the terms specified in the following list?

Cream of Wheat: thin? thick? lumpy? smooth? salty? well flavored?

Rolled Oats: thin? thick? lumpy? smooth? salty? well flavored?

Scrambled Eggs: dry? moist? watery? salty? well flavored?

Buttered Toast: thin? thick? crisp? soggy? browned? not sufficiently toasted? unevenly browned?

Cocoa: smooth? strong? weak? thick? scum formed on top?

Coffee: strong? weak? muddy? clear?

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BREAD

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BREAD-MAKING REQUIREMENTS

IMPORTANCE OF BREAD AS FOOD

1. BREAD is sometimes defined as any form of baked flour, but as the word is commonly understood it means only those forms of baked flour which contain some leavening substance that produces fermentation. The making of bread has come down through the ages from the simplest methods practiced by the most primitive peoples to the more elaborate processes of the present day. In truth, to study the history of bread making would amount to studying the accounts of the progress that has been made by the human race. Still, in order that the production of bread from suitable ingredients may be fully understood, it will be well to note the advancement that has been made.

2. In the earliest times, what was used as bread was made in much the same way as it is today by many uncivilized and semicivilized people. The grain was ground between stones, usually by hand, and then mixed with water to form a dough; then this dough was formed into flat, compact cakes and baked in hot ashes, the result being a food very difficult to digest. Later on, some one discovered that by allowing the dough to stand until fermentation took place and then mixing it with new dough, the whole mass would rise, and also that by subjecting this mass to the action of heat, that is, baking it, the mass would be held in place and become a loaf of raised bread that was lighter and, of course, more digestible. It was this discovery that led up to the modern bread-making processes, in which substances known as _leavening agents_, or _ferments_, are used to make bread light, or porous. Chief among the substances is yeast, a microscopic plant that produces fermentation under favorable conditions.

Indeed, so important is this ferment that, in the United States, whenever the term _bread_ is used alone it means _yeast_, or _leavened_, _bread_, whereas, when other leavening agents are used, the bread is referred to as _hot bread_, or _quick bread_, as is fully explained in another Section. It will be well to note this fact, for in all cases throughout these cookery lessons yeast, or leavened, bread is always meant when the term bread is used alone.