Part 7

44. The other method of keeping food, namely, DRYING, depends for its success on the fact that such micro-organisms as bacteria cannot grow unless they have a considerable quantity of moisture or water. Molds grow on cheese, bread, damp cloth or paper, or articles that contain only a small amount of moisture, but bacteria need from 20 to 30 per cent. of water in food in order to grow and multiply. This explains why in high altitudes and dry climates foods keep for a long time without artificial means of preservation. It also explains why the old-fashioned housekeeper dried fruits and why the preservation of certain meats is accomplished by the combined methods of smoking and drying, the creosote of the smoke given off from the wood used in this process acting as a preservative. All the grains, which are very dry, keep for long periods of time, even centuries, if they are protected from the moisture of the air. Peas, beans, and lentils, as well as dried biscuits and crackers, are all examples of how well food will keep when little or no moisture is present.

KEEPING FOODS WITH ICE

45. Although, as has just been pointed out, moisture is required for the growth of some micro-organisms, both moisture and warmth are necessary for the growth of most of the organisms that cause molding, putrefaction, and fermentation. It is definitely known, also, that in winter or in cold climates food can be kept for long periods of time without any apparent change; in fact, the lower the temperature the less likely are foods to spoil, although freezing renders many of them unfit for use. These facts are what led up to the scientific truth that keeping foods dry and at a low temperature is an effective and convenient method of preventing them from spoiling and to the invention of the refrigerator and other devices and methods for the cold storage of foods.

46. THE REFRIGERATOR.--For home use, the refrigerator offers the most convenient means of keeping foods in good condition. As is well known, it is a device that, by means of air cooled by the melting of ice or in some other manner, keeps food at a temperature near the freezing point. All refrigerators are constructed in a similar manner, having two or more layers of wood between which is placed an insulating material, such as cork, asbestos, or mineral wool. The food compartments are lined with tile, zinc, or other rust-proof material, and the ice compartment is usually lined with rust-proof metal, so as to be water-tight and unbreakable. Any refrigerator may be made to serve the purpose of preserving food effectively if it is well constructed, the ice chamber kept as full of ice as possible, and the housewife knows how to arrange the foods in the food chambers to the best advantage.

The construction and use of refrigerators are based on the well-known scientific fact that air expands and rises when it becomes warm. This can be proved by testing the air near the ceiling of a room, for no matter how warm it is near the floor it will always be warmer above. The same thing occurs in a refrigerator. As air comes in contact with the ice, it is cooled and falls, and the warm air is forced up. Thus the air is kept in constant motion, or circulation.

47. Many refrigerators are built with the ice compartment on one side, as in the refrigerator illustrated in Fig. 12. In such refrigerators, there is usually a small food compartment directly under the ice chamber, and this is the coldest place in the refrigerator. Here should be stored the foods that need special care or that absorb odors and flavors readily, such as milk, butter, cream, meat, etc., because at this place the air, which circulates in the manner indicated by the arrow, is the purest. The foods that give off odors strong enough to taint others should be kept on the upper shelves of the refrigerator, through which the current of air passes last before being freed from odors by passing over the ice.

48. In Fig. 13 is shown a type of refrigerator in which the ice chamber, or compartment, extends across the entire top. This type is so built as to produce on each side a current of air that passes down from the ice at the center and back up to the ice near the outside walls, as shown by the arrows. A different arrangement is required for the food in this kind of refrigerator, those which give off odors and flavors being placed in the bottom compartment, or farthest from the ice, and those which take up odors and flavors, on the top shelf, or nearest the ice. A careful study of both Figs. 12 and 13 is advised, for they show the best arrangement of food in each type of refrigerator.

49. CARE OF FOOD IN REFRIGERATOR.--The proper placing of foods in a refrigerator is extremely important, but certain precautions should be taken with regard to the food itself. Cooked foods should never be placed in the refrigerator without first allowing them to cool, for the steam given off when a dish of hot food comes in contact with the cold air makes the refrigerator damp and causes an undue waste of ice by warming the air. All dishes containing food should be wiped dry and carefully covered before they are placed in the refrigerator, so as to keep unnecessary moisture out of it. As butter and milk are likely to become contaminated with odors given off by other foods, they should be properly protected if there is not a separate compartment in which to keep them. The milk bottles should always be closed and the butter carefully wrapped or put in a covered receptacle. Onions, cabbage, and other foods with strong odors, when placed in the refrigerator, should be kept in tightly closed jars or dishes, so that the odors will not escape. Before fresh fruits and perishable vegetables--that is, vegetables that decay easily--are put into the refrigerator, they should be carefully looked over and all decayed portions removed from them. No food should be placed in the ice chamber, because this will cause the ice to melt unnecessarily.

50. CARE OF THE REFRIGERATOR.--It is essential that all parts of the refrigerator be kept scrupulously clean and as dry as possible. To accomplish this, nothing should be allowed to spoil in it, and anything spilled in the refrigerator should be cleaned out immediately. The foods that are left over should be carefully inspected every day, and anything not likely to be used within a day or so should be disposed of. At least once a week the food should be removed from all compartments, the racks taken out, the drain pipe disconnected, and each part thoroughly washed, rinsed with boiling water, and dried. The inside of the refrigerator should likewise be washed, rinsed, and wiped dry, after which the drain pipe should be connected, the shelves put back in place, and the food replaced.

The ice chamber of the refrigerator should also be cleaned frequently, the best time to do this being when the ice has melted enough to be lifted out conveniently. To prevent the ice from melting rapidly when it is out of the refrigerator, it may be wrapped in paper or a piece of old blanket, but this covering must be removed when the ice is replaced in the chamber, in order to allow the ice to melt in the refrigerator. Otherwise, it would be impossible to chill the refrigerator properly, the temperature remaining the same as that outside, for it is as the ice gradually melts that the air in the refrigerator becomes cool. Of course, every effort should be made to keep the ice from wasting. Therefore, while the refrigerator should be kept in a convenient place, it should not be exposed to too great heat; also, the doors should be kept tightly closed, and, as has already been explained, hot foods should not be put in until they are sufficiently cooled. Attention must be given to the care of the refrigerator, for only when it is clean and dry can the growth of bacteria that attack foods be prevented.

KEEPING FOODS WITHOUT ICE

51. While a refrigerator simplifies the preserving of cooked foods and those subject to quick decay, there are many communities in which it is not possible to procure ice conveniently, thus making it necessary to adopt some other means of keeping food. Then, too, there are generally quantities of foods, such as winter vegetables, apples, etc., that cannot be stored in a refrigerator, but must be taken care of properly. In such cases, the method of storing depends to a certain extent on conditions. On many farms there are spring houses in which foods may be stored in order to keep them cool during very warm weather; but in the majority of homes, the cellar, on account of its being cool, is utilized for the storage of large quantities of food and even for keeping the more perishable foods when ice cannot be obtained.

52. STORING FOODS IN CELLARS.--In order that a cellar may furnish a safe place for keeping food, it must be well built and properly cared for. If it is dug in wet ground and is not well drained, it will become musty and damp, and fruits and vegetables stored in it will be attacked by mold. A small part of the cellar should be without a floor, as many winter vegetables seem to keep better when placed on dry ground, but the remainder should have a flooring of either well-matched boards or cement that can be kept clean and dry. Ventilation must also be supplied; otherwise, odors will be retained that will taint the food kept in the cellar. To allow the passage of air and light from the outside and thus secure proper ventilation, the cellar should be provided with windows. These will also assist very much in the cleaning and airing of the cellar, processes that should never be overlooked if good results are desired. In addition to the cleaning of the cellar, constant attention should be given to the foods kept there. Foods that have spoiled or are beginning to spoil should be disposed of quickly, for decayed food that is not removed from the cellar will affect the conditions for keeping other foods and may be injurious to the health of the family.

53. All foods likely to be contaminated by dust and flies in the cellar must be carefully covered. A screened frame fastened to the wall with brackets, like the one shown in Fig. 14, is excellent for this purpose, because it prevents the attack of vermin and permits of ventilation. If canned goods are to be stored, a cellar cupboard like that shown in Fig. 15 is a very good place in which to keep them. Separate bins should, if possible, be provided for fruits, potatoes, and other winter vegetables, and, as shown in Fig. 16, such bins should be so built as to allow air to pass through them.

54. WINDOW BOXES.--The woman who lives in an apartment where there is no cellar and who does not wish to keep ice in the refrigerator through the winter will find a window box a very good device in which to keep food. Such a box is also a convenience for the woman who has a cellar, but wishes to save steps. A box of this kind is built to fit a kitchen or a pantry window, and is placed outside of the window, so that the opening comes toward the room. Such an arrangement, which is illustrated in Fig. 17, will make the contents of the box easily accessible when the window is raised. A box for this purpose may be made of wood or galvanized iron, and it is usually supported by suitable brackets. Its capacity may be increased by building a shelf in it half way to the top, and provided it is made of wood, it can be more easily cleaned if it is lined with table oilcloth.

STORING OF NON-PERISHABLE FOODS

55. It may seem unnecessary to give much attention to the storing of foods that do not spoil easily, but there are good reasons why such foods require careful storage. They should be properly cared for to prevent the loss of flavor by exposure to the air, to prevent the absorption of moisture, which produces a favorable opportunity for the growth of molds, and to prevent the attacks of insects and vermin. The best way in which to care for such foods is to store them in tightly closed vessels. Earthenware and glass jars, lard pails, coffee and cocoa cans, all carefully cleaned and having lids to fit, prove to be very satisfactory receptacles for such purposes.

56. Unless coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and prepared cereals are bought in cans or moisture-proof containers, they should be emptied from the original packages and placed in jars that can be tightly closed, so that they will not deteriorate by being exposed to the air or moisture. For convenience and economy, these jars or cans should be labeled. Sugar and salt absorb moisture and form lumps when exposed to the air, and they, too, should be properly kept. A tin receptacle is the best kind for sugar, but for salt an earthenware or glass vessel should be used. It is not advisable to put these foods or any others into cupboards in paper bags, because foods kept in this way make disorderly looking shelves and are easily accessible to vermin, which are always attracted to food whenever it is not well protected.

Canned goods bought in tin cans do not need very careful storage. It is sufficient to keep them in a place dry enough to prevent the cans from rusting. Foods canned in glass, however, should be kept where they are not exposed to the light, as they will become more or less discolored unless they are stored in dark places.

Flour, meals, and cereals stored in quantities develop mold unless they are kept very dry. For the storing of these foods, therefore, wooden bins or metal-lined boxes kept in a dry place are the most satisfactory.

STORING OF SEMIPERISHABLE FOODS

57. Practically all vegetables and fruits with skins may be regarded as semiperishable foods, and while they do not spoil so easily as some foods, they require a certain amount of care. Potatoes are easily kept from spoiling if they are placed in a cool, dry, dark place, such as a cellar, a bin like that shown in Fig. 16 furnishing a very good means for such storage. It is, of course, economical to buy potatoes in large quantities, but if they must be kept under conditions that will permit them to sprout, shrivel, rot, or freeze, it is better to buy only a small quantity at a time. Sweet potatoes may be bought in considerable quantity and kept for some time if they are wrapped separately in pieces of paper and packed so that they do not touch one another.

Carrots, turnips, beets, and parsnips can be kept through the winter in very much the same manner as potatoes. They deteriorate less, however, if they are covered with earth or sand. Sometimes, especially in country districts, such winter vegetables are buried in the ground out of doors, being placed at a depth that renders them safe from the attacks of frost. Cabbage will keep very well if placed in barrels or boxes, but for long keeping, the roots should not be removed. Pumpkin and squash thoroughly matured do not spoil readily if they are stored in a dry place.

Apples and pears may be stored in boxes or barrels, but very fine varieties of these fruits should be wrapped separately in paper. All fruit should be looked over occasionally, and those which show signs of spoiling should be removed.

MENUS AND RECIPES

58. As practically every woman knows, a MENU, or _bill of fare_, consists of a certain number of dishes given in the order in which they are to be served; likewise, she knows that the dishes called for in a menu must be prepared according to a RECIPE, or _receipt_, which is the list of ingredients of a mixture giving the exact proportions to be used, together with proper directions for compounding. In all good recipes the items are tabulated in the order in which they are needed, so as to save time and produce good results. Items tabulated in this manner also serve to minimize the danger of omitting some of the ingredients of a recipe, for they can be easily checked up when they are given in the proper order.

59. In preparing recipes, the beginner in cookery usually has difficulty in judging the size of a recipe. The experienced housewife will not follow a recipe exactly when she thinks it will produce more food than she needs to meet the requirements of her family; instead, she will reduce the quantities to suit her wants. Likewise, if a recipe will not provide enough, she will increase the quantities accordingly. Just how to judge whether or not a recipe will make what is wanted comes only with experience, but the beginner may be guided by the fact that it is never wise to prepare more than enough of one kind of dish, unless, of course, it can be used to good advantage as a left-over. On the other hand, if a recipe is for food that can be kept and used for another meal later, it often pays to make up more, so as to save time, fuel, and labor. In any event, it is always advisable to follow explicitly the directions that are given, for if the recipe is of the right kind they will be given so that success will result from carrying them out in detail.

60. In order that the beginner in cookery may form a definite idea of the manner in which the dishes of a menu, or bill of fare, may be prepared so that they will be ready to serve in their proper order at meal time, there is here given a simple dinner menu, together with the recipes for preparing the dishes called for and the order in which they should be prepared. While these recipes are not intended to teach methods of cookery, which are taken up later, the student is advised to prepare the menu for her own satisfaction and so that she will be able to report on the success she has had with each dish.

MENU

Pan-Broiled Chops Mashed Potatoes Creamed Peas Cabbage Salad Orange Fluff with Sauce

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RECIPES

PAN-BROILED CHOPS

Buy the necessary number of pork, veal, or lamb chops, and proceed to cook them according to the directions previously given for pan broiling. Season with salt and pepper just before removing the chops from the pan.

MASHED POTATOES

Peel the desired number of potatoes, put to cook in a sufficient amount of boiling salted water to cover well, and cook until the potatoes are tender enough to be easily pierced with a fork. Remove from the fire and drain off the water. Mash the potatoes with a wooden or a wire potato masher, being careful to reduce all the particles to a pulpy mass in order to prevent lumps, or put them through a ricer. When sufficiently mashed, season with additional salt, a dash of pepper, and a small piece of butter, and add hot milk until they are thinned to a mushy consistency, but not too soft to stand up well when dropped from a spoon. Then beat the potatoes vigorously with a large spoon until they are light and fluffy.

CREAMED PEAS

Boil until they are soft, two cupfuls of fresh peas in 1 quart of water to which have been added 1 tablespoonful of salt and 2 of sugar, and then drain; or, use 1 can of peas, heat them to the boiling point in their liquid, and then drain. A part of the water in which the fresh peas were cooked or the liquid on the canned peas may be used with an equal amount of milk to make a sauce for the peas, or all milk may be used.

SAUCE FOR PEAS

1 c. of milk, or 1/2 c. liquid from peas and 1/2 c. milk 1 Tb. butter 1/2 tsp. salt 1 Tb. flour

Melt the butter in a saucepan or a double boiler, work in the flour and salt until a smooth paste is formed, and add the liquid that has been heated. Stir until thick and smooth. Add to the peas, reheat, and serve.

CABBAGE SALAD

1/2 medium-sized head of cabbage 1/2 tsp. salt 1 small red or green sweet pepper Dash of pepper 1 small onion Salad dressing

Shred the cabbage finely by cutting across the leaves with a sharp knife or a cabbage shredder. Chop the pepper and onion into very small pieces and add to the cabbage. Mix well and add the salt and pepper.

CABBAGE-SALAD DRESSING

3/4 c. vinegar 1/2 tsp. mustard, if desired 1/4 c. water 1/2 tsp. salt 2 Tb. butter 3 Tb. sugar 1 Tb. flour

Heat the water and the vinegar; melt the butter in a saucepan, add to it the flour, mustard, salt, and sugar, stir until well blended, and then pour in the hot liquid. Cook for a few minutes, stirring constantly to prevent the formation of lumps. Pour over the cabbage while hot; allow it to cool and then serve on plates garnished with lettuce.

ORANGE FLUFF

1/2 c. sugar 1/4 c. orange juice 5 Tb. corn starch 1 Tb. lemon juice Pinch of salt 2 egg whites 1 pt. boiling water

Mix the corn starch and sugar and salt, stir into the boiling water, and cook directly over the fire until the mixture thickens. Continue to cook, stirring constantly for 10 minutes, or place in a double boiler and cook 1/2 hour. Beat the egg whites until they are stiff.

When the corn starch is cooked, remove from the fire and mix thoroughly with the fruit juices. Pour over the beaten egg whites and stir slightly until the eggs and corn starch are mixed. Pour into sherbet glasses or molds wet with cold water and set aside until ready to serve.

SAUCE FOR ORANGE FLUFF

1 Tb. corn starch 3/4 c. boiling water 2 Tb. butter 3/4 c. sugar 2 egg yolks 1/4 c. orange juice 1 Tb. lemon juice

Moisten the corn starch with a little cold water and stir in 1/2 cupful of the boiling water. Cook for 10 or 15 minutes. Cream the butter, add the sugar and egg yolks, beat the mixture with a fork, and add the remaining 1/4 cupful of boiling water. Stir this into the corn starch and cook until the eggs thicken slightly. Remove from the fire and add the orange and lemon juices. Serve cold over the orange fluff.

61. In the preparation of a meal, it is impossible to follow the order of service given in a menu, because of the different lengths of time required to prepare the different dishes. The order in which the menu here given should be prepared will therefore serve to show the way in which other meals may be planned or other menus carried out. Each recipe for this menu is planned to serve six persons, but it can be easily changed in case a different number are to be served. For instance, if there are only four in the family, two-thirds of each ingredient should be used; and if only three, just one-half of each. If eight are to be served, one-third will have to be added to each of the amounts. As has been pointed out, just a little thought will show how other numbers may be provided for.

62. In preparing the foods called for in this menu, the dessert, which is the last thing given, should be prepared first, because time must be allowed for it to cool before serving. In fact, it may be prepared a half day before it is to be served. So as to allow sufficient time to mash the potatoes after they have boiled, they should be made ready to put on the stove about 3/4 hour before the meal is to be served. After the potatoes have been put on to boil, the peas, provided fresh ones are to be used, should be put on to cook, and then the sauce for them should be made. If canned peas are to be used, the sauce should be made after the potatoes have been put on the stove and the peas should be heated and combined with the sauce just before broiling the chops. The cabbage salad may then be prepared, and put in a cool place until it is to be served. The chops should be broiled last, because it is necessary that they be served immediately upon being taken from the fire.

TERMS USED IN COOKERY

63. It is important that every person who is engaged in the preparation of food be thoroughly familiar with the various terms that are used in cookery. Many of these are not understood by the average person, because they are foreign terms or words that are seldom employed in other occupations. However, as they occur frequently in recipes, cook books, menus, etc., familiarity with them will enable one to follow recipes and to make up menus in a more intelligent manner.