Part 6

24. Uniform results in cookery depend on accurate measurement. Of course, there are some cooks--and good ones, too--who claim that they do not measure, but as a matter of fact they have, through long experience, developed a judgment, or "sense," of measurement, which amounts to the same thing as if they actually did measure. Still, even these cooks cannot be absolutely sure of securing as satisfactory results time after time as are likely to follow the employment of a more accurate method. Therefore, to secure the best results, every kitchen should be supplied with the proper measuring utensils, which are scales, a measuring cup, and a set of measuring spoons, or a standard tablespoon and a standard teaspoon.

25. SCALES.--In Fig. 7 is shown the type of scales generally included in the kitchen equipment. The material to be weighed is placed on the platform at the top, and the weight of it is indicated on the dial by a pointer, or hand. Sometimes these scales are provided with a scoop in which loose materials may be placed in weighing. Such scales furnish a correct means not only of measuring materials, but of verifying the weights of foods from the market, the butcher shop, or the grocery. To use them properly, the housewife should learn to balance them exactly, and when she is weighing articles she should always allow for the weight of the container or receptacle, even if it is only the paper that holds the food.

26. MEASURING CUPS.--Weighing the articles called for in a recipe is often a less convenient method than measuring; therefore, in the preparation of foods, measuring is more often resorted to than weighing. As accuracy in measurement is productive of the best results, it is necessary that all measures be as accurate and definite as possible. For measuring the ingredients called for in recipes, use is generally made of a measuring cup like that shown in Fig. 8. Such a cup is designed to hold 2 gills, or 1/2 pint, and it is marked to indicate thirds and quarters, so that it may be used for recipes of all kinds. If a liquid is to be measured with such a cup, it should be filled to the brim, but if dry material is to be measured with it, the material should be heaped up in the cup with a spoon and then scraped level with a knife, in the manner shown in Fig. 9. In case fractions or parts of a cup are to be measured, the cup should be placed level and stationary and then filled evenly to the mark indicated on the cup itself.

27. Many times it will be found more convenient to measure dry materials with a spoon. This can be done with accuracy if it is remembered that 16 tablespoonfuls make 1 cup, or 1/2 pint; 12 tablespoonfuls, 3/4 cup; 8 tablespoonfuls, 1/2 cup; and 4 tablespoonfuls, 1/4 cup. If no measuring cup like the one just described is at hand, one that will hold 16 level tablespoonfuls of dry material may be selected from the kitchen supply of dishes. Such a cup, however, cannot be used successfully in measuring a half, thirds, or fourths; for such measurements it will be better to use a spoon.

As a rule, it will be found very convenient to have two measuring cups of standard size, one for measuring dry ingredients and the other for measuring moist or wet ones. If it is impossible to have more than one, the dry materials should be measured first in working out a recipe, and the fats and liquids afterwards. Whatever plan of measuring is followed, however, it should always be remembered that recipes are written for the definite quantities indicated and mean _standard_, not approximate, cupfuls, tablespoonfuls, and teaspoonfuls.

28. MEASURING SPOONS.--In addition to a measuring cup or two, a set of measuring spoons will be found extremely convenient in a kitchen. However, if it is impossible to obtain such a set, a teaspoon and a tablespoon of standard size will answer for measuring purposes. Three level teaspoonfuls are equal to 1 tablespoonful. When a spoon is used, it is heaped with the dry material and then leveled with a knife, in the manner shown in Fig. 10 (_a_). If 1/2 spoonful is desired, it is leveled first, as indicated in (_a_), and then marked through the center with a knife and half of its contents pushed off, as shown in (_b_). Fourths and eighths are measured in the same way, as is indicated in Fig. 11 (_a_), but thirds are measured across the bowl of the spoon, as in (_b_).

29. Precautions to Observe in Measuring.--In measuring some of the materials used in the preparation of foods, certain points concerning them should receive attention. For instance, all powdered materials, such as flour, must first be sifted, as the amount increases upon sifting, it being definitely known that a cupful of unsifted flour will measure about 1-1/4 cupfuls after it is sifted. Lumps, such as those which form in salt and sugar, should be thoroughly crushed before measuring; if this is not done, accurate measurements cannot be secured, because lumps of such ingredients are more compact than the loose material. Butter and other fats should be tightly packed into the measure, and if the fat is to be melted in order to carry out a recipe, it should be melted before it is measured. Anything measured in a cup should be poured into the cup; that is, the cup should not be filled by dipping it into the material nor by drawing it through the material.

30. TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.--As foods are sold by weight and by measure, and as recipes always call for certain weights and measures, it is absolutely necessary that every person engaged in the purchase and preparation of foods should be familiar with the tables of weights and measures in common use for such purposes in the United States and practically all other English-speaking countries. In addition, it will be well to have a knowledge of relative weights and measures, so as to be in a position to use these tables to the best advantage.

31. The table used ordinarily for weighing foods is the table of AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. Another table of weights, called the table of _Troy weight_, is used by goldsmiths and jewelers for weighing precious metals. It should not be confused with avoirdupois weight, however, because its pound contains only 12 ounces, whereas the avoirdupois pound contains 16 ounces. The table of avoirdupois weight, together with the abbreviations of the terms used in it, is as follows:

AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT 437-1/2 grains (gr.)..... = 1 ounce............. oz. 16 ounces................ = 1 pound............. lb. 100 pounds............... = 1 hundredweight..... cwt. 20 hundredweight \ }....... = 1 ton............... T. 2,000 pounds /

Although 2,000 pounds make 1 ton, it is well to note that 2,240 pounds make 1 _long ton_ (L.T.). The long ton is used by coal dealers in some localities, but the ton, sometimes called the _short ton_, is in more general use and is the one meant unless long ton is specified.

32. The table of LIQUID MEASURE is used for measuring all liquids, and is extremely useful to the housewife. This table, together with the abbreviations of its terms, is as follows:

LIQUID MEASURE 4 gills (gi.)........... = 1 pint................. pt. 2 pints................. = 1 quart................ qt. 4 quarts................ = 1 gallon............... gal. 31-1/2 gallons.......... = 1 barrel............... bbl. 2 barrels \ }............ = 1 hogshead............. hhd. 63 gallons/

33. The table of DRY MEASURE is used for measuring dry foods, such as potatoes, dried peas and beans, etc. The table of dry measure, with its abbreviations, follows:

DRY MEASURE 2 pints (pt.)........... = 1 quart................ qt. 8 quarts................ = 1 peck................. pk. 4 pecks................. = 1 bushel............... bu.

34. Tables of RELATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES are of value to the housewife in that they will assist her greatly in coming to an understanding of the relation that some of the different weights and measures bear to one another. For example, as dry foods are sold by the pound in some localities, it will be well for her to know the approximate equivalent in pounds of a definite quantity of another measure, say a quart or a bushel of a certain food. Likewise, she ought to know that when a recipe calls for a cupful it means 1/2 pint, as has been explained. Every one is familiar with the old saying, "A pint's a pound the world around," which, like many old sayings, is not strictly true, for while 1 pint is equal to 1 pound of some things, it is not of others. The following tables give approximately the relative weights and measures of most of the common foods:

APPROXIMATE MEASURE OF 1 POUND OF FOOD

Beans, dried.................. 2 CUPFULS Butter........................ 2 Coffee, whole................. 4 Corn meal..................... 3 Flour......................... 4 Milk.......................... 2 Molasses...................... 1-1/2 Meat, chopped, finely packed.. 2 Nuts, shelled................. 3 Oats, rolled.................. 4 Olive oil..................... 2-1/2 Peas, split................... 2 Raisins....................... 3 Rice.......................... 2 Sugar, brown.................. 2-2/3 Sugar, granulated............. 2 Sugar, powdered............... 2-3/4

APPROXIMATE WEIGHT OF 1 TABLESPOONFUL OF FOOD

Butter........................ 1/2 OUNCE Corn starch................... 3/8 Flour......................... 1/4 Milk.......................... 1/2 Sugar......................... 1/2

APPROXIMATE WEIGHT OF 1 CUPFUL OF FOOD

Butter........................ 8 OUNCES Corn meal..................... 5 Corn starch................... 6 Flour......................... 4 Milk.......................... 8 Molasses..................... 10 Nuts, shelled................. 4 Raisins....................... 5 Sugar......................... 8

In measuring, you will find the following relative proportions of great assistance:

3 tsp. = 1 Tb. 16 Tb. = 1 c.

35. ABBREVIATIONS OF MEASURES.--In order to simplify directions and recipes in books relating to cookery, it is customary to use the abbreviations of some weights and measures. Those which occur most frequently in cook books are the following:

tsp. for teaspoonful pt. for pint Tb. for tablespoonful qt. for quart c. for cupful oz. for ounce lb. for pound

ORDER OF WORK

36. For successful results in cookery, the work to be done should be planned beforehand and then carried on with systematic care. By following such a plan, a waste of time and material will be prevented and good results will be secured, for there will be little chance for mistakes to occur. The order of work here outlined will serve to make clear the way in which cooking processes can be carried out satisfactorily.

First, read the quantity and kind of ingredients listed in the recipe, and study carefully the method by which they are to be prepared and combined. In so doing, determine whether the dish is too expensive and whether the amounts called for will make a dish sufficient in size for the number of persons to be served. If they are too large, carefully divide them to make the right quantity; if they are too small, multiply them to make them enough.

The heat itself, which plays such an important part in cooking, should receive attention at the proper time. If the fuel to be used is coal or wood and baking is to be done, build the fire long enough before it is needed, so that it will be burning evenly and steadily.

Then, while the recipe is being prepared, provided it is to be baked, regulate the heat of the oven. If gas or kerosene is to be used, light it after the recipe is read, and regulate it during the measuring and mixing of the ingredients.

Before proceeding to prepare a dish, clear enough working space for the utensils that are to be used, as well as for carrying on the various operations without feeling crowded. Then, on the cleared space, place the necessary measuring utensils, such as a measuring cup, a knife, a teaspoon, and a tablespoon. Select a bowl or a pan for mixing, a spoon for stirring, and, when needed, an egg whip or beater for eggs and separate bowls in which to beat them. Choose the utensil in which the mixture is to be cooked, and, if necessary, grease it. During the process of preparing the dish, measure accurately all the ingredients to be used, and check them up with the recipe, so as to be sure that none are missing and that each one is in its proper amount.

If all these steps are accurately taken, the mixing, which is the next step, can be accomplished quickly and without error. With all the ingredients properly combined, the mixture is ready for the last step, the cooking or the baking. This must be done with the utmost care, or an otherwise properly prepared dish may be spoiled.

TABLE FOR COOKING FOODS

37. So that the beginner in cookery may form a definite idea of the length of time required to cook certain foods, there is presented here what is commonly known as a _cookery time table_. It should be remembered that the time required to cook food is influenced by many factors. For instance, the age of vegetables and fruits very largely determines how long they should be cooked; tough meats and fowl require longer cooking than tender ones; and the heat of the oven has much to do with the length of time required for cooking, especially the process of baking or roasting Therefore, while this time table will prove of great help to beginners, it can serve only as a guide. To determine whether or not foods have been cooked long enough, it is advisable to apply the proper tests, which are given later in discussing the various foods rather than to depend solely on the time table. In this table, the length of time for cooking is given in minutes (abbreviated min.) and hours (abbreviated hr.)

COOKERY TIME TABLE

MEATS AND FISH

_Broiled_ Bacon....................... 3 to 5 min. Chicken.................... 20 to 25 min. Fish....................... 15 to 20 min. Fish, slices............... 10 to 15 min. Fish, very small............ 5 to 10 min. Lamb chops.................. 6 to 8 min. Quail or squabs............. 8 to 10 min. Steak, thick............... 10 to 15 min. Steak, thin................. 5 to 7 min. Veal chops.................. 6 to 10 min.

_Boiled_ Beef, corned................ 3 to 4 hr. Chicken, 3 lb............... 1 to 1-1/4 hr. Fish, bluefish, cod, or bass, 4 to 5 lb.......... 20 to 30 min. Fish, slices, 2 to 3 lb.... 20 to 25 min. Fish, small................ 10 to 15 min. Fowl, 4 to 5 lb............. 2 to 3 hr. Ham, 12 to 14 lb............ 4 to 5 hr. Mutton, leg of.............. 2 to 3 hr. Tongue...................... 3 to 4 hr.

_Roasted_ Beef, rib or loin, 5 lb., rare....................... 1 hr. 5 min. Beef, rib or loin, 5 lb., well done.................. 1 hr. 20 min. Beef, rib or loin, 10 lb., rare....................... 1 hr. 30 min. Beef, rib or loin, 10 lb., well done.................. 2 hr. Beef, rump, 10 lb., rare... 1 hr. 30 min. Beef, rump, 10 lb., well done.. 2 hr. Chicken, 4 or 5 lb........ 1-1/2 to 2 hr. Duck, 5 to 6 lb........... 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 hr. Fish, 3 to 5 lb........... 45 to 60 min. Fish, small............... 20 to 30 min. Goose, 10 lb.............. 2 to 2-1/2 hr. Lamb, leg of.............. 1-1/4 to 1-3/4 hr. Mutton, saddle............ 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 hr. Pork, rib, 5 lb........... 2 to 2-1/2 hr. Turkey, 10 lb............. 2-1/2 to 3 hr.

VEGETABLES

_Boiled_ Asparagus.............. 20 to 30 min. Beans, lima or shell.... 40 to 60 min. Beans, string.......... 30 to 45 min. Beets, old............... 4 to 6 hr. Beets, young........... 45 to 60 min. Brussels sprouts....... 15 to 25 min. Cabbage................ 35 to 60 min. Carrots............... 3/4 to 2 hr. Cauliflower............. 20 to 30 min. Green corn............... 8 to 12 min. Macaroni................ 30 to 40 min. Onions.................. 45 to 60 min. Peas.................... 25 to 60 min. Potatoes................ 30 to 45 min. Rice.................... 20 to 30 min. Spinach................. 20 to 30 min. Turnips................ 1/2 to 1-1/2 hr. Vegetable oysters...... 3/4 to 1-1/2 hr.

BAKED FOODS Beans..................... 6 to 8 hr. Biscuits, baking powder ... 15 to 25 min. Biscuits, yeast........... 10 to 25 min. Bread, ginger............. 20 to 30 min. Bread, loaf............... 40 to 60 min. Cake, corn................ 20 to 30 min. Cake, fruit............ 1-1/4 to 2 hr. Cake, layer............... 15 to 20 min. Cake, loaf................ 40 to 60 min. Cake, pound............ 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 hr. Cake, sponge.............. 45 to 60 min. Cookies.................... 6 to 10 min. Custard................... 20 to 45 min. Muffins, baking powder.... 15 to 25 min. Pastry.................... 30 to 45 min. Potatoes.................. 45 to 60 min. Pudding, Indian............ 2 to 3 hr. Pudding, rice (poor man's). 2 to 3 hr.

* * * * *

CARE OF FOOD

REASONS FOR CARE

38. Although, as has been explained, the selection and preparation of foods require much consideration from the housewife who desires to get good results in cookery, there is still one thing to which she must give attention if she would keep down the cost of living, and that is the care of food. Unless food is properly taken care of before it is cooked, as well as after it is cooked--that is, the left-overs--considerable loss is liable to result through its spoiling or decaying. Both uncooked and cooked food may be kept wholesome in several ways, but before these are discussed it may be well to look into the causes of spoiling. With these causes understood, the methods of caring for foods will be better appreciated, and the results in buying, storing, and handling foods will be more satisfactory.

39. To come to a knowledge of why foods spoil, it will be well to note that nature abounds in _micro-organisms_, or living things so minute as to be invisible to the naked eye. These micro-organisms are known to science as _microbes_ and _germs_, and they are comprised of _bacteria, yeasts_, and _molds_, a knowledge of which is of the utmost importance to the physician and the farmer, as well as the housewife. Just in what ways these are beneficial to the farmer and the physician is beyond the scope of the subject of cookery, but in the household their influence is felt in three ways: They are the cause of the decay and spoiling of foods; they are of value in the preparation of certain foods; and they are the cause of contagious diseases. It will thus be seen that while some microbes are undesirable, others exert a beneficial action.

40. It is only within comparatively recent years that the action of micro-organisms has been understood. It is now definitely known that these minute living things seize every possible chance to attack articles of food and produce the changes known as fermentation, putrefaction, souring, and decay. Micro-organisms that cause fermentation are necessary in bread making and vinegar making, but they are destructive to other foods, as, for example, those which are canned or preserved. Organisms that cause putrefaction are needed in the making of sauer kraut, salt rising bread, and cheese. Molds also help to make cheese, but neither these nor putrefactive organisms are desirable for foods other than those mentioned. It should be remembered, however, that even those foods which require micro-organisms in their making are constantly in danger of the attacks of these small living things, for unless something is done to retard their growth they will cause food to sour or decay and thus become unfit for consumption.

Some foods, of course, withstand the attacks of micro-organisms for longer periods of time than others. For example, most fruits that are protected by an unbroken skin will, under the right conditions, keep for long periods of time, but berries, on account of having less protective covering, spoil much more quickly. Likewise, vegetables without skins decay faster than those with skins, because they have no protective covering and contain more water, in which, as is definitely known, most micro-organisms thrive.

41. If food is to be kept from decaying, the housewife must endeavor to prevent the growth of micro-organisms, and she can best accomplish this if she is familiar with the ways in which they work. It is for this reason that, whether she possesses a scientific knowledge of bacteria or not, an understanding of some practical facts concerning why food spoils and how to keep it from decaying is imperative. In this part of cookery, as in every other phase, it is the reason why things should be done that makes all that relates to the cooking of food so interesting. In all parts of the work there are scientific facts underlying the processes, and the more the housewife learns about these, the more she can exercise the art of cookery, which, like all other arts, depends on scientific principles.

* * * * *

METHODS OF CARE

CLASSIFICATION

42. As has been pointed out, it is not the mere presence of micro-organisms that causes the spoiling of food, but their constant growth. Therefore, to keep milk from souring, meat from spoiling, bread from molding, canned fruit from fermenting, and so on, it is necessary to know what will prevent the growth of these minute organisms. Different foods require different treatment. Some foods must be kept very cold, some must be heated or cooked, others must be dried, and to others must be added preservatives. An unwarrantable prejudice has been raised in the minds of many persons against the use of preservatives, but this is due to the fact that the term is not properly understood. In this use, it means anything that helps to preserve or keep safe the food to which it is added. Sugar, salt, spices, and vinegar are all preservatives, and are added to food as much for the purpose of preserving it as for seasoning it.

CANNING AND DRYING OF FOODS

43. Among the common methods of caring for foods that are to be used at a future time are canning and drying. CANNING, which is discussed fully in another Section, consists in preserving sterile foods in sealed cans or jars. The aim in canning is to prevent the growth of micro-organisms, and to do this the process known as _sterilizing_--that is, the destroying of bacteria and other micro-organisms by means of heat--is resorted to. Canning theories are different now from what they were in former times. For example, housewives formerly made heavy, rich preserves of available fruits because it was thought that sugar must be used in large quantities in order to keep or prevent them from spoiling. While it is true that the sugar assisted, science has since proved that sterilizing is what must be done, so that now only the sugar desired for sweetening need be used.