Chapter 3
Harvest time comes well on in the summer, and for several weeks everyone is busy on the farm. It is usual when putting in a wheat crop to sow a portion for hay. Either a separate crop is sown or a special variety suitable for hay is sown around the main grain crop. This is cut with the reaper and binder just after the wheat plant has flowered. The sheaves, which are tied by the machine, are stooked in the paddock for ten or fourteen days until dry enough to be carted in and stacked. The climate--as a rule fine weather prevails--is favourable to haymaking, and a bright-coloured nutritious hay is produced. The average yield is a ton to one ton and a-half to the acre, but three, four, and even five ton crops are taken off, but that is usually in a crop sown and cultivated specially for hay with the intention of supplying the chaff market, which is an industry in itself. The wheatfarmer, properly speaking, only cuts what he will require for his own horses. A reaper and binder is drawn by three horses, and will cut from 10 to 12 acres per day. One man is required to drive the machine, and one or two men to pick up and stook the sheaves. Some farmers cut their own hay for chaff, working the machine either by hand or with horse-works for turning the cutting wheel, but the majority have the hay cut by contractors, who travel through the country with a special plant for the purpose, charging $2.16 per ton for cutting. After a portion round the edges of the crops has been cut for hay a strip of land is ploughed around the crop in the stubble for the purpose of making a break in case of fire, and thus enabling a fire that might approach the crop being controlled on the bare ploughed ground.
The wheat crop is allowed to become dead ripe in the paddock, as for stripping the ears must be dry and quite ripe. Once it is ready to strip every effort is made to take the crop off as quickly as possible, as it does not improve standing, for some of the grain is likely to be shaken out by winds. The more modern wheats, however, hold the grain wonderfully against wind or hail. Varieties of wheat are sown so they will mature at different times, which extends the harvesting period, as one crop will be ready to harvest before the other is quite ripe, and there is thus a useful rotation. At harvesting time work usually starts in the paddock about 8 a.m., as the wheat does not strip well until the hot sun gets on it, as it toughens during the night. The work goes on until 7 or 7.30 p.m., with a break of two hours at mid-day, and spells of twenty minutes in the morning and afternoon. Where labour is employed one man drives the harvester, but his horses are looked after, fed, groomed, and harnessed for him. This saves time, and enables the crop to be taken off the more quickly. Of course, the farmer in a small way will do his own work, requiring only a little assistance at harvest time, someone to sew up and stack the bags. As there is always a rush at harvest time, the bags of grain are often left lying in the paddocks in small heaps until the crop is all off, when they are carted to the railway or mill. Some farmers do their own carting, but the majority pay the regular carriers to do this work, the cost varying according to distance, but is generally done for 24 cents per ton per mile. About 12-1/2 bags of wheat go to the ton.
At present in Australia wheat is all handled in bags which contain about 3 bushels of grain. The price of empty bags varies from $1.50 to $2.00 per doz. Very few second-hand bags are used. The different State Governments in Australia are now considering the wisdom of introducing the American system of handling wheat in bulk. The Governments of New South Wales and of Western Australia have definitely announced their intention of establishing that system, while it is being favourably considered in Victoria. Once the system was introduced in any of the States it would probably be only a short time before it was adopted throughout the Commonwealth. At present, however, bags are in universal use, the grain being thus carried both for local and export trade.
The settler finds no difficulty in selling his wheat, as grain merchants and millers compete for it. Often sales are made before the crop is ripe. The large wheat merchants and shippers have their agents in every town, and these men visit the farms, inspect the grain, and make an offer according to the ruling market price. The local millers are also competing for what grain they want for local consumption. The grower is paid on delivery at the mill or the nearest railway station. If he prefers to do so he can store it with the buying firms, giving them the right to purchase when he is prepared to sell, or he can store on the farm. The export values of wheat per bushel for the last six years, have been:--
1909 $1.00 1910 1.00 1911 0.84 1912 0.95 1913 0.84 1914 0.82
Wheat is bought and sold on what is known as the f.a.q. (fair average quality) system. Samples of wheat are taken from the various districts by the different Chambers of Commerce, and each State fixes its own f.a.q. standard. These samples are mixed together, and by careful testing on a patent scale it is ascertained what an Imperial bushel of weight actually weighs. The idea is to ascertain as equitably as possible what a fair average sample of the season's wheat should weigh. The standard varies a little in different years; it may be 61, 62, 64, or as low as 58 lbs. to the bushel. Whatever it is fixed at for the season that is the basis upon which all sales are made. If the market price for wheat, for instance, is $1.20 per bushel, it is for wheat up to the f.a.q. standard. Say the latter has been fixed at 62 lbs., the wheat must show that weight. Agents have what is called a chrondrometer for the purpose of testing the wheat. If it is below the f.a.q. standard, a lower price is given. This system has been devised to suit the export trade. Samples of the standard wheat are sent to markets abroad, and all cargoes are sold on that basis. When they arrive at the market abroad they must test up to the f.a.q. standard. This system has been in force in Australia for nearly half a century.
It must be understood that this standard f.a.q. weight has nothing to do with the quantity for which the grower is paid. He is always paid on the Imperial bushel basis, 60 lbs. Whatever the standard may be, every 60 lbs. of wheat is a bushel. The f.a.q. weight is a standard for quality, not quantity.
There is always a market for Australian wheat, and the price is always equal to what wheat is bringing in the world's main markets. Australian wheat has a character of its own, and a character that is improving. British millers want it on account of the large amount of flour it produces, and the colour and bloom it gives to their product. The grain is usually bright and clear in texture and rich in gluten, having fine milling qualities. Of late years Australian wheats have been considerably improved in strength, and this factor is continuing, and they undoubtedly promise to more than equal any wheat produced, possessing not only colour and bloom, but also strength, and giving the miller what he wants to produce an ideal article.
COST OF PRODUCING WHEAT.
The cost of production of wheat is a most important matter to the grower. As already stated, the comparatively low yields in Australia are amply compensated for by the low cost of producing wheat.
In regard to the work on the farm, the following figures are approximately the prices for different classes of work when it is done by contract:--Ploughing new ground, $1.68 per acre; old or fallowed ground, $1.45 per acre; harrowing, 18 cents to 24 cents per acre; cultivating, $0.50 per acre; drilling, 36 cents per acre; harvesting with stripper-harvester, 72 cents per acre; cutting with binder, 84 cents per acre; stooking, 24 cents per acre; carting and stacking hay, $1.35 per acre.
Superphosphate is the main fertiliser used. Australian wheat soils are naturally strong in nitrogen and potash, but in many cases are deficient in available phosphoric acid. Superphosphate costs about $1.20 per cwt., and may be reckoned at 48 cents to 60 cents per acre. Seed wheat runs from 96 cents to $1.20 per bushel; sowing 45 lbs. to the acre represents 72 cents to 84 cents per acre.
It is reckoned that if the same work is done by weekly-paid labour the cost is reduced by fully 30 per cent. all round.
In common practice it is considered that it costs $4.80 to $6.00 per acre to put in and take off an acre of wheat. The following figures are reliable estimates of the actual cost of production by official experts, and also actual figures supplied by working farmers.
In the following estimate of the cost of producing wheat it is assumed that the land is fallowed, and the estimate is based on a yield of 20 bushels per acre:--
Ploughing once at $1.45 per acre $1.45
Harrowing three times at 18 cents per acre 0.54
Cultivating once at $0.60 per acre 0.60
Drilling at 36 cents per acre 0.36
Seed, 45 lbs., at 80 cents per bushel 0.72
Pickling seed 0.06
Superphosphate, 1/2 cwt. at $1.20 0.60
Harvesting with harvester at 72 cents per acre 0.72
Seven bags at $1.60 per dozen 0.84 ----- $4.89
If the land is not fallowed and the seed sown immediately after ploughing, the cost is correspondingly less. The above figures are the cost if the work is done on contract. If it is done by weekly hired labour the work comes out about 30 per cent. cheaper, as will be seen by the following figures:--
Ploughing: Wages, one man at $6.00 per week; man's rations, $2.40 per week; feed for four horses for week, $9.60; total, $18.00. One man with four horses in a three-furrow plough will do 22 acres in six days at a cost of less than $0.84 per acre. Drilling: Man's wages, $6.00; rations, $2.40; horsefeed, three horses, $7.20; total, $7.80. He will drill 90 acres in six days at that cost, or less than $0.18 per acre. Other operations cost similarly less, but in all cases wear and depreciation of plant and interest on capital invested in plant should be allowed for.
These figures, however, concern cases where labour is employed. The following figures show the outlay where a man is doing the work himself. He could plough, cultivate, and sow 250 acres, which would take him twenty-two weeks. The first year he has to purchase his seed wheat and feed for his horses:--
190 bushels seed wheat at $0.80 per bushel $153.60
10 tons chaff at $19.20 per ton 192.00 ------- $345.60
Approximately $1.38 per acre.
At harvest time he would first reap portion of his crop to secure a supply of horse feed for the following year, say, 10 acres:--
Reaping and haymaking, 2 men's wages for three days at $1.92, food $0.48 per day $14.40
Twine (for binding the sheaves) 6.00
Harvesting the wheat crop: One man's wages $1.92, food $0.48 per day for forty days 96.00
One hundred dozen bags at $1.68 per dozen 168.00
Horsefeed, 5 tons chaff at $19.20 per ton 96.00
Cartage, 1000 bags wheat at $0.18 per bag 180.00 ------- $560.40
This is reckoning the crop as averaging 15 bushels per acre, when the returns would be:--
15 tons of chaff (a low estimate) at $19.20 per ton $288.00
1200 bags of wheat, 3600 bushels at $0.80 per bushel 2880.00 -------- $3168.00
Less expenditure ($345.60, $560.40) 906.00 -------- Balance $2262.00
To be thoroughly correct we should allow for:--
Interest on plant, costing, say, $1920.00 at 5 per cent. $96.00
Depreciation of plant, 10 per cent. 192.00
Rent on 250 acres at $1.20 per acre 300.00 ------- Total $588.00
And in addition allow for the value of the farmer's own labour:--
Twenty-two weeks putting in crop at $12.00 per week $264.00
Ten weeks harvesting at $14.40 per week .. 144.00 ------- $408.00
We still have a satisfactory result, viz.:--
Returns $3168.00
Outlay $570.00
Interest, &c. 588.00
Farmer's labour 408.00 ------- 1902.00 -------- Net clear return $1266.00
From this it can be seen that very handsome returns can be obtained where the farmer is working his land properly, and growing a good portion, if not all, of his crop on fallowed land. Then his average would be nearer 25 bushels than 15, and his net return nearly as much again. In the above example, after making full allowance for all legitimate charges, the cost of producing a 15-bushel crop from 250 acres comes out at about $7.44 per acre.
SHARE FARMING.
One of the most prominent and, in a sense, unique features of wheatgrowing in Australia is the share-farming system. In New South Wales, for instance, something like one-sixth of the wheat crop is put in on shares. Under this system the landowner and the worker with limited means co-operate to their mutual benefit. One provides the land and the other the labour, and, under certain conditions, they share the produce. Since it was introduced many years ago, share farming has become popular because it has proved a boon to both parties and to the different States, while providing an exceptionally safe means of giving men the opportunity to ultimately acquire farms of their own.
The conditions upon which land is worked on shares differs slightly in different districts, but usually they are somewhat on the following lines. The landowner provides the land ready for the plough, fenced and cleared; the seed wheat, and bluestone for pickling same; bags and twine for his share of the crop. The share farmer usually provides machinery and horses to work the land, put in and take off the crop, all labour and bags and twine for his share of the crop. In the majority of cases the landowner and the share farmer each take half the proceeds, or "bag for bag," each reserving the right to dispose of his share when and where he deems fit. In some cases the agreement is more liberal to the share farmer, and a fixed amount--perhaps 16 to 18 bushels--is agreed upon, which is shared equally, any balance being taken by the farmer. This is sometimes adopted as an incentive to good farming, and in cases as an inducement to attract the share farmer into new districts some distance from the railway. There have been cases where farmers have secured very good crops, 30 to 36 bushels to the acre, which meant that they received 22 and 28 bushels per acre for their share, while the landowner only received 8 bushels. These are exceptional conditions. As stated, the usual practice is to share equally. The following are sample specimens of the different agreements worked under:--
The landowner finds the land, all seed, and half manure; the farmer finds plant, labour, and half manure. Each takes half the crop.
The landowner provides land, all seed and all manure; the farmer plant and labour, and takes one-third of the crop, the landowner taking two-thirds.
The landowner provides land only, and takes one-third of the crop; the farmer provides plant, labour, seed, and manure, taking two-thirds of the crop.
The landowner provides all stock, land, and half manure; the farmer provides labour, seed, and half manure, and the crop is divided equally.
The landowner provides land, seed, and manure; the farmer does all the work, and the crop is equally divided.
It will thus be seen that some minor differences occur in the agreements. The first of the above list is most common. There are cases, however, where a progressive owner is anxious to get his land under wheat, and has financed the farmer, finding everything but labour. The landowner has provided a working plant, for which the farmer pays him from the proceeds of the crops, the payments extending over a term of seasons. Under this system men have started without any capital, and in a few years possessed a plant worth several hundred pounds, together with a snug banking account to their credit. Of course, in such cases the landowner knows his man, and knows he is honest, experienced, and capable. Usually the men have worked on the place as farm hands.
Under any conditions it is essential that the share farmer must have certain qualifications. It could not be expected that the landowner would consent to allow him to work valuable land otherwise. Practical experience of wheatgrowing is required, together with a good personal character. Local experience is also usually required, and in any case it would be the wisest course for any man to secure in his own interests such experience before endeavouring to start farming on shares. In Australia the man who is in earnest, and determined to go on the land, will find no difficulty in obtaining such experience. There is a good demand for willing farm workers at a rate of wages that will allow a thrifty man to put something by, while he is gaining a practical experience and a knowledge of local conditions. Once he has those he will not find it difficult to obtain the chance to start working on shares.
The share farmer has to find his own dwelling, and support himself and family. In some cases the owner erects the dwellings under special terms, but usually, as the farmer hopes to only be engaged for a few seasons share farming, the building is of a cheap nature, as the climate is temperate.
A man with $1440.00 or $1920.00 can purchase horses and obtain a plant, financing himself for a couple of years without depending too much on credit. Men have started with less and succeeded, as examples given later will show. It is not necessary to purchase a complete plant, and, as already stated, the more expensive implements can be purchased on terms. A man can handle 200 to 300 acres, and at the ruling prices for wheat of recent years, taking the average obtained by good farmers, the returns will run from $9.60 to $14.00 per acre and more for his share. In addition, after ploughing and sowing is completed, a team of horses will earn good money at contract work in the district, carrying on the roads and so on, until harvest time. In this way a farmer in three or four years, perhaps less, will be in the position to take up land on his own account on a private or Government subdivision, and start in to build a permanent and comfortable home for himself and his family.
While share farming he has proved his capability and obtained the confidence that comes with experience, together with a valuable knowledge of local conditions, which is a great help in selecting land for purchase.
It will be seen that share farming affords exceptional opportunities for the energetic man with a small capital. He can start without sinking all his capital in rent or purchase money, and perhaps burdening himself with a heavy debt. In his own interests he has that to farm well, and indeed in most cases the terms of the agreement require conditions essential to good farming. Farmers are usually required to plough to a specified depth, and at times to prepare an area of fallow land for the succeeding crop. He is allowed to graze his horses on the property, or given the use of a paddock at a low rental.
One of the advantages of share farming, making towards amicable working, is that the interests of the landowner and the farmer are the same. Both are anxious to secure the greatest possible return from the land, and there is a direct community of interest. The landowner may be more concerned about maintaining the fertility of the soil, and securing good farming, but this is also to the interest of the farmer, and certainly affords him a valuable lesson for the future when he is working his own property. While the system beyond question is equitable and fair, and gives the farmer an excellent chance to achieve success that would not be the case where he was working on wages, or an ordinary tenant, admittedly it is also advantageous to the landowner. He secures a good return from his land, and avoids the anxiety and trouble often associated with the employment of labour on a large scale, while he has not to embark a large sum of money in working plant.
In connection with a system such as this the evidence of an unbiassed, independent outside body is, perhaps, more convincing than anything else. It is available.
In 1910 Australia was visited by the Scottish Agricultural Commission, a body of practical men from Scotland, who investigated rural conditions in the Commonwealth. The Commission toured the Commonwealth, visiting different wheat districts, and came into direct touch with local conditions. They paid great attention to the share farming, as its possibilities could not fail to impress them, and in their report on "Australia: Its Land, Conditions, and Prospects," they had the following to say:--
"After a year or two the newcomer finds himself ready for a start on his own account. If he possessed a few hundred pounds when he landed, he will now seek to become his own landlord in one or other of the ways open to him. If, however, he has yet too little money for that, he will be well advised to take no risks, but to be content meantime either with renting a farm or with farming on the share system. A man who is intelligent and industrious, who has had sufficient experience of farming in Australia, but who has not enough money to buy land, cannot do better than turn his attention to farming on shares.
"He can take up wheatfarming ... and if he has a good reputation, he will find no difficulty in getting on shares the kind of farm he wants."
HOW THE SETTLER IS ASSISTED.
The different Australian States fully recognise the great value to the community of the farmer, and special steps are taken to assist him in different ways.
Financial assistance is rendered through agricultural banks in West Australia and Queensland, the Credit Foncier in Victoria, and State Banks in New South Wales and South Australia. Through these Government institutions advances are made to settlers. Full particulars in this regard are furnished in another booklet, obtainable by intending settlers.