Part 15

Mathematics, school of Pythagoras, 153, 155, 156, 161, 167; theory of Descartes, 154; arithmetic, 153, 154; geometry, 158; mathematical physics, 162; library of Greek, 166; pure, 166, 169; Peripatetic, 170

Mausollus of Halicarnassus, tyrant, 205

Mechanics, development by Archimedes, Heron, and Alexandrian school, 162

Mediæval schools, training in logic, 150, 151

Medicine, formulated by Greeks, 147; school of Hippocrates, 171 _ff_; mediæval, 174, 175; and superstition, 174, 175; resurrection of, 176

Menander, character of plays, 34, 94; translations by Plautus and Terence, 61, 208, 209; influence, 61; portrays Attic society, 208-210; fragments of plays discovered in Egypt, 209

Meredith, George, characteristic of his work, 79

_Merope_, of Matthew Arnold, 58

Middle Ages, a period of gloom, 114, 115; conditions in, 181; causes of retrogression in, 182

Miletus, fall of, checks the development of Greek prose, 67; temple, statues at entrance, 120

Milton, John, poetic vision disturbed by political controversies, 42; influenced by Greek epic, 42; influenced by Greek drama, 46; poetic style and metre, 46; Matthew Arnold on, 46; defence of dramatic poetry, 47; on Shakespeare and Greek masters, 47; on Greek tragedy, 47-49; choruses and lyrical monodies, 50; inspired by Isocrates, 88, 90 _Areopagitica_: style, 88 _Comus_: lyric sweetness, 51 _Paradise Lost_: best modern epic, 42; compared with the _Iliad_, 43; divine and human in, 43; redundancy of similes, 43; and _Argonautics_, 43; and _Prometheus Vinctus_, 47 _Samson Agonistes_: Greek form, 47, 49, 50; borrowings from _Œdipus_ and _Prometheus_, 49; development influenced by Euripides, 49; Greek spirit, 50; lyrics and choral odes, 50, 51; Sir Egerton Brydges on, 50

_Mimes_, _see_ Herondas

Minyæ, Tomb of the, 101, 108, 111

Motion and matter, 234

Mummius, cause of conquest of, 211

Music, first beginnings, 99, 133 _ff_; notation related to meaning, 125; existing specimens of Greek, fragmentary, 134; comparison of Greek with Japanese, 135; Greek scales, 135, 142-144; and Greek poetry, 136; relation to education, 136, 137, 144; effect upon morals, 137-140, 144; Greek music source of modern, 141; simplicity, 141; Greek works on, 141; Plato on instrumental and vocal, 141; extant Greek tracts on, 142; Hungarian, 142; problems of Greek, 142; scientific basis of harmony discovered by Pythagoreans, 143; Pythagorean theory, 143; Aristotle on melody, 144; summary of Greek music, 144

N

Naples, 145

Natural history, collection of facts by Greeks, 147

Natural philosophy, 236

_Nike_ of Samothrace, 117

Novel, development among Greeks, 93, 94; and Menander’s plays, 94; main topic imported from East, 94

O

_Ode on a Greek Vase_, by Keats, 132

_Ode to St. Cecilia_, _see_ Dryden

_Odyssey_, world epic, 27, 41; imitated, 41; unequalled, 42

_Œdipus_, _see_ Sophocles

Optics, Euclid’s work on, 166

Oratory, school of pleaders, 68; treatment of subject, 69; subject of great importance, 69, 70; eloquence of debate and eloquence of display, 68, 81; Greeks adverse to extemporaneous speaking, 81; art of persuasion, 82; arguments and manner of presenting, 82, 83; legal rhetoric, 83; speeches of Demosthenes, 83; _De Corona_, 83; Greek oratory of debate still the model of modern world, 85

Orchomenos, 101

Ornament, earlier in development than architecture, 99; in pre-historic ages, 99; in Doric temple, 104

P

Painting, 125 _ff_; examples of Greek, 126, 127; qualities requisite for success, 128; Greek sense of form, 128; Greek sense of colour, 128-130; landscape little developed among Greeks, 130, 131; portraits, 131; mythical subjects, 131; and sculpture, 131; indirect influence on modern painting, 131, 132; Greek vases, 132; branch of decoration, 132, 133

Pantheism, doctrine of, 222-224; positive side of, 223; arguments for, 224; how regarded by Greek public, 225; and Wordsworth, Shelley, Tennyson, 228, 229

Pantheists, Greek, character of, 222; legacy to mankind, 228; effect on modern poetry, 228

Pantheon, 111

Pappus, work in geometry, 161

Papyrus I. of Turin, 197

_Paradise Lost_, _see_ Milton

Parmenides, 236; gives positive side of doctrine of pantheism, 223

Parthenon, unexcelled, 27; J. Carrey’s drawings of, 52; frieze, 113, 122; horses of, 121; ornamentation, 130

Pastoral poetry developed by Theocritus, 35

Pater, Walter, _Marius the Epicurean_, 244

Paul, Saint, on Stoicism, 245

Pausanias, and temple of Hera, 105; and Tomb of the Minyæ, 108

Peisias, the Lycian, will of, 196

Peloponnesus, cities of, 201

Penrose, Mr., Greek critic, 27

Pericles studied oratory, 70

Peripatetic Mathematics, 170

_Persians_ of Timotheus, _see_ Timotheus

Peyron, Amédée, 197

_Phædo_, of Plato, 242

Phelps, W. L., on Gray, 54

Pherecydes of Syros, predecessor of Heracleitus, 67

Phidias, and the _Laocoon_, 116; his ornamentation of the Parthenon, 121, 122; his procession of figures, 122, 123

Philodemus, _Tract on Music_, on effect of music on morals, 138

Philosophy, relation to science, 169, 236; secular and free, 215, 216

Phœnicia, influence on Greece, 11, 12

Phœnician alphabet, 12

Phormio, 71

Phrynichus, _Fall of Miletus_: displeasing to Attic audience, 73, 115

Physical geography, 169

Physics, mathematical, 162; developed by Archimedes, 162; development of hydrostatics and mechanics by Heron, 162, 167

Pindar, Cicero on, 50; Horace’s appreciation, 53

Pindar, _Odes_, 27

Place-names, Greek, 7

Plato, influence on Wordsworth, 57; as critic, 92; on influence of music, 139, 141; philosophy of, 237; influence on modern thought, 237; views of education, 237, 238; theology, 238 _ff_; on moral law, 239, 240; on aristocracy of intellect, 241; on immortality of soul, 242 _Dialogues_: model of conversation, 91; logical studies in, 149; character, 214; subjects, 215 _Phaedo_: 242 _Politicus_: 238 _Republic_: picture of gloom, 116; ideal for safeguard of society in, 238 _Sophist_: 152

Platonism, 228

Plautus, translation of Menander, 61, 209

Plutarch, model for modern biographers, 80 _Lives_: North’s translation furnished Shakespeare with subjects, 45, 80; influence on French Revolution, 46

_Poetic_, _see_ Aristotle

Poetry, Greek: 31 _ff_; carefully studied product, 32, 37; dialects, 33, 40; development, 34, 35; pastoral, 35; dramatic, 36; lyric, 37; form and spirit, 38; diction and metre, 38; best studied in the original, 38, 64; examples of inferior, 38, 39; associated with other arts, 39; dignity and brevity, 40; and modern poetry, 41 _ff_; great epics, 41; influence, 42 _ff_; how far reduced to theory, 61-63; translations, 45, 51, 52, 64; indirect influence through Latin, 45; and music, 136

Politics, causes of development, 182, 183

_Politicus_, of Plato, 238

Polybius, artistic conception of history, 79; and Achæan League, 203; on limitation of family, 207; on ruin of Greece, 211

Pompeii, 145

Pope, Alexander, translation of _Iliad_, 51, 52, 53

Praxiteles unexcelled, 112

Praxiteles, _Hermes_, 33

_Prometheus Vinctus_, _see_ Æschylus

Prose, Greek, knowledge of early development of, 65; late origin, 66; poetry more popular than, 66; early attempt at, by Heracleitus, 67; Hippocrates, 67; beginnings among Dorians, 68; prose adapted for a listening public, 86; political essay, 86; laws of composition devised by Isocrates, 88; conversation easy, 90; letter-writing, 92; the novel, 93; books of travel, 97

Puteoli, gateway into Italy, 145

Pythagoras, effect of influence, 221; contemporaries and successors, 221

Pythagorean school, importance of arithmetic, 153; theory of Descartes, 154; speculations on series of units, 155; specimens of treatment in arithmetic, 156; results of researches, 156; importance of numbers ten and twelve, 156; discoverers and teachers of science, 166, 167

Pythagoreans, discover science of harmony, 143; famous theory, 143

R

Racine and his plays, 48

_Rambles and Studies in Greece_, _see_ J. P. Mahaffy

Renaissance (Renascence), 4; artists of, 131

Rénan, Ernest, simplicity of style, 75

Renascence, 4

Representation, local, 189

_Republic_, _see_ Plato

Research, original, requisite for, 235

Rogers’s translation of Aristophanes, 61

Roman life and culture, 18, 19

Roman Republic, effect of growth, 211

Romanesque architecture, example of tawdriness, 109

Romans, medium through which Greek learning was spread in Western World, 3, 4, 18, 19, 85, 190, 195; compared with the Greeks, 182

Romantic school, 59

Rome, Greek ruins in time of Renaissance, 146

_Romeo and Juliet_, _see_ Shakespeare

Royal College of Physicians, Ireland, 173

Ruskin, John, style, 89

S

St. Angelo, castle of, 111

St. Mark’s at Venice, architecture of, 18, 109

_Sakia_, invention of, 165

_Samson Agonistes_, _see_ Milton

Sappho, 37; Horace’s version of, 53; love for nature, 59

Satyric drama, 48

Science, definition of term as used, 147; relation to philosophy, 168; abstract thinking necessary to experiment and discovery, 235

Sciences of observation, 147

_Scriptores Erotici Graeci_, 95

Sculpture, Greek: reasons for pre-eminence 112, 113; nude and draped figures, 112, 113; Donatello’s problem, 113, 114; use of bronze and marble, 116, 118; development, 117, 118; decay, 117; never dissociated from painting, 118; coloured statues, 118, 119; principles of composition, 120; second favourite form of composition, 122; effect on Europe, 123

Shakespeare, indebted to Plutarch’s _Lives_, 45; indirect knowledge of Greek poets, 46; Milton on, 47, 48; school of, defended 48 _Antony and Cleopatra_: source in Plutarch’s _Lives_, 45 _Hamlet_: Voltaire’s view of, 48 _Macbeth_: Voltaire’s view of, 48 _Romeo and Juliet_: Greek origin, 95

Shakespeare, school of, and Greek masters, 48

Shelley, combines Greek culture with Romantic imagination, 56, and Pantheism, 228

Sicilian troubles, 186

Sidon, tomb of, 112

Silver Age of Greek Literature, 91

Simonides, Gray compared with, 54

Skellig Michael, beehive huts at, 99

Slavery, among Greeks, 188, 190; Aristotle on, 189

Smyly, Prof., _Essay_; on Greek notation in arithmetic, 158

_Social Life in Greece_, _see_ J. P. Mahaffy

Socrates, prosecution of, 215; causes revolution in philosophy, 236, 237

Solon, use of verse, 39; modern, 66; reduces debts in Athens, 186

_Sophist_, of Plato, 152

Sophists, attitude toward scientific speculation, 237

Sophocles, Milton on, 47; choruses, 51; Whitelaw’s version of, 64; music of, 136 _Œdipus_; and Milton’s _Samson Agonistes_, 49

Sophron, poet, 39

Sovranties, pass into aristocracies, 184, 185; models in constitutional government, 184-186

Sparta, slaves in, 188; power, 201

Spinoza, teachings of, 216; Pantheist, 224

Statuary, portrait, 120

Stearne, John, Founder of Royal College of Physicians, Ireland, 173; theorist and writer, 173; on works of Hippocrates, 173; and the Church, 176

Stoics, speculations, 244-246; and Epicureans, 244-246

Stylists, modern English, 89

Swanwick, Miss, translations, 57

Swinburne, Algernon, writer of plays after Greek models, 58 _Atalanta_: choruses, 40, 58 _Erechtheus_; 58

Syracuse, 68

T

Taylor, Jeremy, style influenced by Isocrates, 90

Temples, Greek: Doric ornament, 104; features, 105; at Tiryns, 105; Hera at Olympia, 105; distinction between dwellings and, 106; construction, 106; compared with houses, 107; proportions, 107; furnish models for all Europe, 110

Tennyson, influenced by Theocritus, 36, 59, 60; and Euripides, 60; and Pantheism, 228, 229

Terence, translation of Menander, 61, 209

Thales, his primitive element of the world, 216, 217; predicts an eclipse, 217

Themistocles, studied oratory, 70

Theocritus, Virgil’s translations, 24; pastoral poet, 35; goes back to life of people, 35, 36; influence on Tennyson, 36, 59, 60; idealises the commonplace, 38; delights in nature, 59; best translation of, 64 _Idylls_: 96

Theognis, use of verse, 39

Theon of Smyrna, 167

Theophrastus, collaborator with Aristotle, 169

Thirlwall, history written without first-hand knowledge of Greece, 56

“Three tragic poets,” the, 47, 49

Thucydides, has given to world model of the science of history, 71; subject, 71, 77, 78; compared with Herodotus, 76, 78; subtle artist, 76; style, 77; picture of politics in Greece, 77; artistic scheme, 78; diction, 78; obscurity, 78, 79; on war, 200

_Thucydides Mythistoricus_, _see_ Cornford

Timotheus, _Persians_: inferior poetry, 38, 39, 63; Wilamowitz on, 39

Tiryns, remains of temples at, 105

Tombs, domed or circular buildings, 110; Pantheon, 110; Castle of St. Angelo, 111; Invalides in Paris, 111; Mausoleum of Queen Victoria, 111; Treasure House of Atreus, 111; Tomb of the Minyæ, 111; early, in Ireland, 111

_Tract on the Sublime_, translated by Burke, 92; point of view of, 92

Tragedy, Greek: material, 42; Milton’s view of, 47, 48

Travels, not thoroughly Greek, 97

Treaties, between Greek city-states, 198

Trinity College, Dublin: some of the requisites for degree, 179

Turin, Academy of, _Transactions_; referred to, 197

U

Unions or leagues, question as to rights of contracting parties, 202, 203; European examples, 204

V

Vases, ornamentation of, 132

Venetian Republic, 184

Villari, Professor Pasquale, _Studies_: quoted, on problem of art in Renaissance, 113, 114

Viollet-le-Duc, _Entretiens sur l’architecture_: his theory of the origin of the arch, 109

Virgil, first foreign imitator of Homer, 42; compared with Milton, 46 _Æneid_: M. Arnold compares style with Milton’s, 47; Dryden’s translation, 53 _Eclogues_: 24 _Georgics_: 24

Vitruvius, 104

W

Wagner, Richard, turned natural defect into success, 87; effect of his attempt to combine poetry and music, 136; effect of his music on morals, 138, 139 _Tristan and Isolde_: 139

War, between Hellenic peoples: weapons and prisoners, 199

Weem of Scale, beehive huts at, 100

Whitelaw’s _Sophocles_, 64

Wilamowitz, on _Persians_ of Timotheus, 39

Wills or testaments, 194-197

Women’s rights, 181

Wordsworth, least Greek of nineteenth-century poets, 57; illuminated by Plato, 57; and Pantheism, 228, 229; immortality of soul, 242, 243 _Excursion_: 40, 57

Wyse, William, of Trinity College, Cambridge, 195

X

Xanthus the Lydian, historian, 71

Xenophanes, founder of school of Elea, 221; doctrine of, 222

Xenophon, historian, 79 _Cyrus_: 94 _Hiero_: picture of gloom, 116

Z

Zeno, Eleatic, theory of sound, 225, 226

Zeno, the Stoic, 245

Zoölogy promoted by Aristotle, 171

FOOTNOTES:

[1] The recent book of August Fick upon the place-names in Greek lands shows that the great majority are not Greek, and this is particularly the case with Attica, the purest home of culture, showing that even here there survived a large indigenous population. This is the new signification of the Athenian claim to be _autochthonous_, or native children of the soil.

[2] The readers of my _Rambles and Studies in Greece_ will remember how I was once shipwrecked in the very harbour of Ægina, and compelled to seek hospitality in a modest private house. When I saw the woman of the house in the morning, by the light of day, I shouted to my companions that one of the figures of the Parthenon had walked into the room. The splendid type was there in its perfection.

[3] The _Odyssey_ of Homer, the two tragedies on Œdipus of Sophocles, the _Birds and Frogs_ of Aristophanes, the Pythian odes of Pindar, not to speak of smaller gems such as the scraps of Sappho and Simonides, the Idylls of Theocritus.

[4] Of course this common inference may be quite mistaken. Artificial things are often a real and great improvement on nature.

[5] This is probably the case with Hipponax.

[6] This remark is from Hare’s almost forgotten _Guesses at Truth_, an excellent book.

[7]

“Keen were his pangs but keener far to feel He nursed the pinion which impelled the steel”

is straight from Æschylus.

[8] I know no translation of the whole seven plays of Æschylus that I can recommend, though there be many admirable versions of the _Agamemnon_, but among the English reproductions of Sophocles let me call your attention to that of Mr. Whitelaw, of most of Euripides to that of Mr. Way. Both of these are eminently the work of scholars who are also poets.

[9] I need hardly add that the brilliant comedies of Aristophanes are to be found in the well known books of J. Hookham Frere and of Mr. Rogers, who has quite recently brought out another play.

[10] I say _fresco_ because this is usually occupied with historical scenes.

[11] The reader can now consult the brilliant and suggestive _Thucydides Mythistoricus_ of Mr. Cornford on this aspect of the historian and his work.

[12] Book iii., 82-4

[13] _Cf._ for example what Herodotus tells us in his fourth book of the affairs of Cyrene.

[14] I must refer the audience for details to the chapter on Thucydides in my _History of Greek Literature_.

[15] The minutiæ of rythm and harmony to which they condescended are such that I could not possibly make them clear to you in a short passage of a lecture, but must refer you to the chapters on Isocrates and Demosthenes in my _History of Greek Literature_.

[16] _Cf._ § 457 of my _Greek Literature_.

[17] On this _Cf._ §§ 416, 437 of my _Greek Literature_.

[18] An exception may be made for the genuine letters of which we have found the actual originals among the papyri of Egypt. Here we find, among Greeks scattered abroad, the offspring of adventurous and mercenary soldiers, all the urbanities of modern letter writing. All the Roman formulæ of politeness we find in Cicero’s letters, were derived from this source--the long current Greek forms of correspondence.

[19] If Shakspeare’s _Romeo and Juliet_ ends not in happiness, but in disaster, the devices of the play--the sleeping drug, the hiding in the tomb where the lovers again unite, these are the stock devices of our Greek novels, so clearly, that the story must have been derived through Italian versions from a Greek novel of this kind. Boccaccio was clearly influenced by this literature.

[20] The first beginnings of music, in the form of whistles or pipes, are found among prehistoric remains of people who had never learned to write, but only to draw pictures.

[21] In the rudest cases the house was not excavated but was built on the surface, and then covered with a mound of earth.

[22] The inner lintel stone 30 feet long, 16 deep, and over 3 thick, weighs about 112 tons. The _dromos_ is 115 long and 19 wide. The doorway is 17½ feet high and 8 feet wide at the top swelling to 8½ at the ground. The whole chamber about 50 feet high and 50 across the floor. Read description in Baedeker, p. 324.

[23] The beehive chamber I take to be an importation from northern and central Europe and therefore probably due to that strain in early Greek civilisation.

[24] Villari’s _Studies_, p. 258.

[25] God--says Herodotus in the famous dialogue of Xerxes and Artabanus on the fugitive character of human happiness--God, that has given to man a sweet taste of life, is found grudging in his dole.

[26] Nothing is more striking in the old churches of such towns as Lüneburg, Wismar, Rostock, than the representation of the Crucifixion on the carved wooden work used as the reredos in various chapels as well as over the high altar. The main figures are in high relief, the crowd standing in front of them in the clear, all coloured richly and in many colours as well as gilding. But for the painful subject, these triumphs of the carver are perhaps the most splendid in mediæval art. The magnificent tombs of the Dukes of Burgundy at Dijon are their worthy rivals in stone.

[27] The foaming heads of the horses of the rising sun at the left corner of the east pediment of the Parthenon are a splendid exception to this calm in the angles of the pediment, and the subdued calmness of the horses of Selene, which represent her setting, accentuates this exception.

[28] This I tell you from the first-hand evidence of my son who was for years in the Solomon Islands and saw it done a hundred times by natives, but never even after desperate efforts by any European.

[29] A curious exception is now to be made for the panels with portraits of the dead found on mummy cases of the first and second centuries in Roman Egypt.

[30] And yet there were several ignorant and random attempts made to reproduce it with modern harmonies.

[31] This is the view advocated in the _Tract on Music_ by Philodemus, large fragments of which were recovered on a charred papyrus from Herculaneum. There is another fragment of a similar character recently discovered and printed by Messrs. Grenfell and Hunt.

[32] _Viz._: 1 + 3 = 2²²; 1 + 3 + 5 = 3²; 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 4², and so on.

[33] There is even an arithmetical proof mentioned by Aristotle that the ratio of side to diagonal of a square cannot be one of whole numbers.

If it were, the ratio will be that of two numbers in its lowest terms, and hence one must be even and the other odd, else both were still divisible by 2.