Part 14

Spaghetti tags, placed in the animal's blubber near the base of the dorsal fin as it rides the bow wave, stream to conform to the contour of the animal's body as it swims (App. Fig. A3). It is not possible to identify the numbers on the spaghetti tag of a moving animal, although color codes may be used to indicate different species, populations, or tagging areas.

Button tags and freeze brands are placed on captured animals prior to their release. The button tags (App. Figs. A4, A5) are placed in the dorsal fin and should be visible as the animal surfaces to breathe or as it rides the bow wave. At close range, the number, letter, or design may also be visible. Freeze brands (App. Fig. A6) are placed on the back or dorsal fin with a supercooled branding iron, apparently without pain or discomfort to the animal, and provide a permanent mark which leaves the tagged animal free of encumbrances. The use of freeze brands shows promise and should come into more extensive use.

Other static tagging techniques currently under investigation include the use of laser beams to apply small brands and the use of gas branding devices. Neither technique, however, has yet reached the field biologist.

The success of any tagging program using static tags depends on the resighting of tagged animals and the recovery of tags. For that reason, we appeal to readers to be on the lookout for tagged animals and to report sightings to one of the authors.

Radio Transmitter Tags

In recent years, radio transmitter tags have been developed for use on marine mammals. As they continue to become more reliable, these tags are expected to come into more and more widespread use.

Early radio tags (Fig. A7) were simple locator beacons which permitted the animal to be tracked by sending a signal to a tracking vessel or aircraft every time the animal surfaced and the antenna tip was exposed. Even these basic packages provide important information on movement, activity patterns, and respiration rates.

Subsequent developments have involved the addition of sensors to monitor the maximum depth of each dive and environmental parameters such as the water temperature at that depth (Fig. A8).

Logical extensions of these developments include the addition of numerous other sensors to permit simultaneous monitoring of multiple aspects of the animal's environment and the transmission of these data first to aircraft and subsequently to satellites for relay to shore-based laboratories.

In addition to permitting scientists to define movement patterns and daily diving patterns of cetaceans, the use of such devices offers an exciting means of determining the environmental parameters that trigger changes in their behavior.

Radio transmitter tags, in a variety of configurations, may be constructed and attached for short-term studies or for long-term monitoring of migrating animals. In either case, depending on their size and methods of attachment, radio transmitter tags may be visible on a free-swimming animal even at a considerable distance.

Natural Markings

In addition to these man-made and applied tags, variations in natural markings and unusual appearances may be used to identify individuals and herds on repeated encounters. Although many species of cetaceans are characterized by changes in color pattern with age, individuals occasionally differ radically in their coloration from their fellows (App. Figs. A9, A10). In addition, individuals are sometimes seen with unusually shaped dorsal fins or scarring patterns (App. Fig. A11). These unusually marked animals should stand out in repeated encounters and can be a help in identifying a herd from one encounter to another.

Obviously, this list of tags and anomalous markings is not exhaustive. New marks may be developed at any time. The discussion is intended to make the reader aware of the value of information on natural or man-made marks in studies of cetacean natural history. Your cooperation will perhaps help us to unravel some of the mystery surrounding the distribution and movements of porpoises, dolphins, and whales.

APPENDIX B

RECORDING AND REPORTING OBSERVATIONS OF CETACEANS AT SEA

To increase reliability of identifications, observers should train themselves to ask the following kinds of questions each time cetaceans are encountered:

1. How large was the animal?

2. Did it have a dorsal fin? If so, what was its size, shape, and position on the animal's back?

3. Was the animal's blow visible? If so, how tall did it appear? What was its shape? How frequently did the animal blow?

4. What was the animal's color and color pattern?

5. Did it have any highly distinctive markings?

6. If it was a large or medium-sized animal, did it show its tail flukes when it began its dive?

7. If it was a medium-sized or small animal, did it approach, avoid, or ignore the vessel? Did it ride the bow wave?

8. What was its behavior? Did it jump from the water? If so, did it make a smooth graceful arching jump, or did it spin, somersault, or reenter with a splash?

One characteristic is rarely sufficient by itself, and the greater amount of relevant evidence the observer can obtain, the greater the likelihood he can make a reliable identification. But it is important to remember that even the most experienced cetologists are often unable to make an identification. Therefore, even if you cannot positively identify an animal or even make a good guess as to its identity, do not hesitate to fill out the rest of the sighting record form and submit it to an appropriate office. Listing the characters you observe and filling in as much of the form as possible may enable a cetologist to make an identification based on those characters and his knowledge of the distribution, movements, and behavior of cetaceans. In this regard, a sketch made as soon as possible after the encounter and photographs taken from as many angles as possible will aid in the identification.

Two sample sighting reports are provided to demonstrate a method of recording observations. The first report, "Sighting Information," is completed as an example and is footnoted for explanation. The second report, "Cetacean Data Record." located at the end of the guide, is blank and may be photocopied in bulk for use in the field. Copies of this or similar forms are available from any of the authors or from National Marine Fisheries Service, Tiburon, Calif. Even if no form is available, however, observations should be recorded in rough form, in as much detail as possible.

Reliable intermittent reports of cetaceans are of interest to cetologists. Their locations indicate seasonality of distribution, and their frequencies help indicate relative abundances of the various species. Because scientists are attempting to determine areas in which cetaceans are often, occasionally, seldom, or never found, and are ultimately describing why animals are found in one area and not another, persons who want to go a step further in their participation in observer programs may want to keep and report records of their entire cruise tracks and zones in which vigilance was maintained but no cetaceans were observed. Data obtained in this manner may be used as the foundation of estimates of cetacean populations, estimates which are extremely difficult to obtain by any other method.

To be of maximum use in such calculations, however, records of this kind _must_ include the following minimum information: time and location of beginning and ending of each continuous watch, weather conditions as they affect visibility, sea state, ship's speed, height of the observer(s) above the water, number of persons on watch, and details of each sighting, particularly the estimated distance of the animal(s) from the ship's track.

For a sample of a fictional continuous watch report might look like the following. If sighting forms are available, these observations may be recorded directly onto them. Additional information can be recorded on the opposite side of the forms.

GENERAL INFORMATION

RV Melville (34-foot converted fishing boat) U.S. Department of Commerce NMFS

Hydrographic Cruise Miami, Florida to Flamingo, Florida

28-31 January 1973

2 observers (G.E. Lingle and G.M. Mohr)

EYE LEVEL OF OBSERVERS: 16 feet above water

AVERAGE SHIP SPEED: 8.0 knots during continuous watch

CONTINUOUS WATCH INFORMATION (REFER TO FIG. B1):

START END START END LEG DATE TIME TIME POSITION POSITION WEATHER--VISIBILITY

1-2 2/28 1200 1730 U. Miami Dock 25-42N Beaufort II Visibility Va. Key 80-02W 3 miles

3-4 2/29 0800 1500 24-26N 25-00N Beaufort I Visibility 80-04E 81-04W 3.5 miles

5-6 2/30 0700 1680 25-12N 25-12N 3.5 miles 80-46W 81-10W

7-8 2/31 0700 0900 25-00 Flamingo 3.5 miles 80-45W

CETACEAN OBSERVATIONS (REFER TO FIG. B1):

A-2/28 1048 16 bottlenosed dolphins, _Tursiops truncatus_. 6 miles outside our course, headed west--rode bow briefly. Large concentrations of sea birds in area. One porpoise freeze branded N-1 on dorsal fin.

B-2/29 1100 2 right whales directly ahead of vessel headed NE--40-foot female? with calf. 2 bottlenosed dolphins accompanying the whales were riding pressure wave off whale's head.

C-2/29 1400 25-30 spotted porpoises, _Stenella plagiodon_, 1.25 miles outside our course, heading 240 deg. mag. Did not ride bow wave.

D-2/30 1300 8 bottlenosed dolphins, _Tursiops truncatus_, 200-300 yards inshore of our course, milling in area of concentrations of mullet and other small schooling fishes, dolphins (porpoises) and birds feeding on fish.

SIGHTING INFORMATION

DATE AND LOCAL TIME [Handwriting: 27 January 1977 0845] LOCATION[13] [Handwriting: Ca. 25 deg.00'N, 80 deg.30'W]

WEATHER CONDITIONS [Handwriting: Scattered rain squalls, visibility 1-1.5 mi, Temp 42 deg.F]

OCEANOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS[14] [Handwriting: Swells 1-2 feet, scattered white caps Winds from S.E. @ 3-8 knots, gusting in squalls to 15 knots.]

SPECIES[15] [Handwriting: Right Whales, Eubalaena glacialis (45 ft/15 ft)] NUMBER OF ANIMAL(S) [Handwriting: 2]

HEADING OF ANIMAL(S) [Handwriting: 015 deg.] SPEED OF ANIMAL(S) [Handwriting: 1-2] (MAGNETIC) (KNOTS)

ASSOCIATED ORGANISMS[16] [Handwriting: Bottlenosed dolphins, Tursiops truncatus (3) and unidentified gulls (10-20)]

TAGS OR UNUSUAL MARKINGS [Handwriting: One whale had deep slash across back about 3 ft. behind blowholes-area of slash was white.]

CHARACTERISTICS OBSERVED WHICH RESULTED IN SPECIES IDENTIFICATION [Handwriting: 45 ft, No dorsal fin, smooth black back, high arching jaws, yellowish-orange growths on head, coastal habitat]

BEHAVIOR OF ANIMAL(S) [Handwriting: Adult whale swam steadily north, calf close beside, Bottlenosed dolphins riding in front of adults head.]

SKETCHES [Hand-drawn illustration of whales, dolphins and distinguishing features.]

PHOTOS AVAILABLE YES NO

[Handwriting: Photos (GEL, Roll 16, frames 8-30)]

ADDITIONAL REMARKS [Handwriting: Dolphins remained with whales entire 1/2 hour of observation, appently riding on pressure wave.]

NAME AND ADDRESS OF OBSERVER (SHIP OR A/C) [Handwriting: G. E. Lingle, Naval Undersea Center, San Diego, California 92132 and G. A. Antonelis, NMFS, Seattle, Washington 98105 aboard the RV Cape]

[Footnote 13: If latitude and longitude are not readily available, record best available position, for example 5 hours at 10 knots, SE of Miami.]

[Footnote 14: Any oceanographic or bathymetric information obtainable at the time of sighting may be significant. Such measurements as water depth, presence of large fish schools, or deep scattering layer/organisms (DSL) characteristics of the bottom (e.g., flat sand plain, sea mount, submarine cliff), surface temperature, depth of thermocline, and salinity should be included if available. In the Pacific, similar data have been used to demonstrate reliable associations there between saddleback dolphins and significant features of bottom relief and relationships between the onset of their nighttime deep diving (feeding) patterns and the upward migration of the scattering layers.]

[Footnote 15: Sometimes two or more species of cetacean are found together. If more than one species is sighted, try to identify each. Give both common and scientific names of each, and even if you cannot identify the animal(s) describe, sketch, and, if possible, photograph them and fill out the rest of the sighting report.]

[Footnote 16: Describe any tags seen (see Appendix A) and state their size, shape, color, and position on the animal's body and any symbols or numbers they contain.]

APPENDIX C

STRANDED WHALES, DOLPHINS, AND PORPOISES

With a Key to the Identification of Stranded Cetaceans of the Western North Atlantic

Stranded Animals

As we discussed briefly in the introduction to this guide, whales, dolphins, and porpoises sometimes "strand" or "beach" themselves, individually or in entire herds, for a complex of still incompletely understood reasons. Though the reasons suggested for these strandings appear almost as numerous as the strandings themselves, two tenable generalizations have recently been proposed.

Strandings of lone individuals usually involve an animal which is sick or injured. Mass strandings, involving from several to several hundred individuals, appear to be far more complex and may result from fear reactions, from extremely bad weather conditions, from herd-wide disease conditions, or from failure of the echolocation system due to physiological problems or environmental conditions which combine to reduce its effectiveness, to mention only a few.

Whatever their causes, however, cetacean strandings usually attract crowds and elicit much public interest and sympathy. There are frequently attempts to save the lives of the animals involved.

Individually stranded cetaceans rarely survive, even if they are found soon after stranding and transported to adequate holding facilities. This does not mean that every attempt should not be made to save them.

In mass strandings, some individuals may be entirely healthy, and if they are found soon enough after stranding, properly protected and transported, and correctly cared for in the initial few days after collection, they may survive in captivity. Attempts to rescue all the animals in a mass stranding by towing them out to sea have almost always been frustrating because the animals usually swim repeatedly back onto the beach.

If you discover a stranding and before you become involved in an attempt to save a live stranded animal or to collect data from a dead one, you should be aware of the following:

MARINE MAMMALS ARE CURRENTLY PROTECTED BY LAW. Under provisions of the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972, it is unlawful for persons without a permit to handle, harass, or possess any marine mammal. It is within the authority of State officials and employees of the National Marine Fisheries Service to arrange for the care of live animals through certified institutions, such as many of those listed in Appendix E. (Even if the animals were not protected by law, any impulse to take them to backyard swimming pools, for instance, should be tempered by the knowledge that their chances of survival are far greater in an institution with the facilities and expertise to properly care for them.) The best general rule is to notify the nearest State or National Marine Fisheries Service office. If you prefer, however, you may contact one of the institutions listed in the appendix and ask them to handle the situation. Some will already have permits to investigate strandings. Most will be anxious to help.

Although _you cannot remove the animal from the beach without a permit_, you can help keep it alive until it can be removed. Here are a few hints. WHILE WAITING FOR HELP TO ARRIVE, ENDEAVOR TO KEEP THE ANIMAL AS COMFORTABLE AS POSSIBLE. IF IT IS NOT TOO LARGE AND SURF CONDITIONS PERMIT, IT SHOULD BE REMOVED TO SHALLOW WATER WHERE IT IS BARELY AFLOAT. The buoyancy of the water will reduce the stress to the animal and will help to keep it cool and prevent overheating--a real danger to stranded cetaceans.

Whether or not the animal can be floated, CARE SHOULD BE TAKEN TO PROTECT IT FROM SUNBURN, DRYING OUT, AND OVERHEATING. IF IT IS AFLOAT, EXPOSED PARTS SHOULD BE FREQUENTLY SPLASHED DOWN. IF IT IS HIGH AND DRY, IT SHOULD BE COVERED WITH DAMP CLOTH, PARTICULARLY ON THE DORSAL FIN, FLIPPERS, AND FLUKES, AND THE BODY AND THE TERRAIN SHOULD BE FREQUENTLY WATERED TO PREVENT THE ANIMAL FROM OVERHEATING IN THE AREAS IN CONTACT WITH THE SAND OR ROCK.

IN ANY CASE, BE CAREFUL TO LEAVE THE BLOWHOLE FREE SO THAT THE ANIMAL CAN BREATHE. NOTE ALSO THAT THE EYES ARE PARTICULARLY SENSITIVE AND SUSCEPTIBLE TO INJURY; THEY SHOULD BE COVERED WITH A WET CLOTH AND TREATED WITH SPECIAL CARE.

With luck, this careful handling will be rewarded with the animal's being picked up and transported to an aquarium, where it can receive proper attention. But even IF THE ANIMAL CANNOT BE SAVED, COLLECTION AND EXAMINATION OF THE CARCASS CAN PROVIDE VALUABLE INFORMATION TO SCIENTISTS WORKING ON THE BIOLOGY OF CETACEANS, OR ON SUCH PROBLEMS AS THEIR DISEASE CONDITIONS AND THE EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS ON THEM. DEAD STRANDED CETACEANS EVEN IN ADVANCED STAGES OF DECOMPOSITION ARE ALSO AN IMPORTANT SOURCE OF MATERIALS FOR MUSEUM STUDY AND DISPLAY. THEREFORE, EVERY ATTEMPT SHOULD BE MADE TO GET THE CARCASS INTO THE BEST HANDS. DEAD CETACEANS, LIKE THE LIVE ONES, ARE PROTECTED BY LAW AND MAY NOT BE REMOVED WITHOUT A PERMIT. The procedure for obtaining permission to collect them is the same as that outlined for live strandings. The majority of the institutions along the western North Atlantic coast will respond to calls about live or dead strandings. Even if you are unable to contact an appropriate official, you can still collect some valuable information by identifying the specimen, using the following key, and by collecting measurements (see Appendix D).

Identifying the Animal

Cetaceans may be found during or shortly after the stranding or many months later, when the carcass is bloated or rotted nearly beyond recognition. If the stranded animal is alive or freshly dead, it can be identified by any of the characteristics itemized in the text. But even if it is in an advanced stage of decomposition it can be identified using the key below. In general numbers and descriptions of teeth (Table 1) and numbers and descriptions of baleen plates (Table 2) persist longest as reliable identifying characteristics. If they are still detectable on the carcass, numbers and lengths of ventral grooves may also be used to separate the balaenopterine whales.[17]

[Footnote 17: The tables were prepared primarily from Tomilin (1967) and supplemented by miscellaneous published papers and our own observations. The sections on toothed whales in the key were developed following the general outline of Moore (1953).]

In order to use the key below, begin with the first pair of opposing characteristics--one of the two will apply to the specimen you are examining. On the line following that statement there will be a paragraph number, go to that paragraph. There you will find two more paired, opposing characteristics. Again, one of the two will apply to the specimen you are examining. Select that one and go to the paragraph indicated on the line following it. Continue this procedure until the statement which is true for your specimen is followed by a species name instead of a reference to another paragraph. This name identifies the specimen. To verify your identification go to the discussion of that species in the text. With a little practice and careful attention to details, identification of whales, dolphins, and porpoises will become easier.

KEY TO THE IDENTIFICATION OF STRANDED CETACEANS OF THE WESTERN NORTH ATLANTIC

1. a. Double blowhole; no teeth present in either jaw; baleen plates in upper jaws. (Baleen whale) Go to 2

b. Single blowhole; teeth present (sometimes concealed beneath the gums); no baleen plates in upper jaw. (Toothed whale) Go to 9