CHAPTER XI.

Leave Jamu to return to Tibet -- Lake of Sirohi Sar -- Vegetation of lower hills -- _Dodonæa_ -- Ramnagar -- Garta -- Dadu, on a tributary of the Chenab -- Camp at 10,000 feet -- Badarwar -- Padri pass -- Descend a tributary of the Ravi -- and ascend another towards the north -- Sach _Joth_, or pass -- Snow-beds -- Camp in Chenab valley.

On my arrival in Kashmir, I had forwarded an application to the Indian Government, requesting permission to return to Tibet, for the purpose of visiting the mountains north of Nubra, which, from the advanced state of the season, I had been unable to do the previous year. Soon after reaching Jamu, I received intimation that the Governor-General, Lord Dalhousie, had been pleased to accede to my request. I had already determined, if permitted to return to Le, to take the route by Zanskar, which, though much frequented by the natives of the country, was quite unknown to European travellers; but as the season was far advanced, I chose a road through the higher hills, instead of taking that leading directly to Chamba, which would have obliged me to travel for at least a week through the hot valleys of the outer ranges.

[Sidenote: LAKE OF SIROHI SAR. _May, 1848._]

I left Jamu on the morning of the 23rd of May. After crossing the Tawi by a ferry immediately below the town, my road lay for three miles up the left bank of that river, along an open sandy plain, only very partially cultivated. I then turned to the right, and entered the low hills which skirted the plain on that side. The road generally followed the course of the ravines, which have been excavated out of the soft sandstone by the numerous tributaries which descend to join the Tawi. These streams are all of small size, with gravelly or sandy beds, and are separated by low ridges of some breadth, faced generally by perpendicular cliffs. An undulating country of this nature occupies the whole of the space which intervenes between the outer range of hills and that next to it, a distance, by the road along which I travelled, of about twelve miles. This second range is a branch given off by an axis, whose direction is nearly east and west. The road ascended to it by a very steep rocky path, after surmounting which I found myself on a considerable tract of nearly level ground, partly occupied by a pretty little lake, with grassy banks. On the banks of this lake, which is called Sirohi Sar, and is rather less than half a mile in length, I encamped on the 24th of May, in a grove of very fine mango-trees. The depth of the lake did not appear great, its margins being for a considerable distance very shallow, and producing an abundance of reeds and water-plants, among which the sacred _Nelumbium_, with its gay flowers, was conspicuous. The elevation of the lake, as deduced from the boiling-point of water, I found to be 2200 feet. It occupies a depression in the top of the ridge, being surmounted on both sides by low ranges of hills, rising only to the height of a few hundred feet. At the east end, a low flat plain, interrupted only by a few regular rocky knolls, seemed to indicate that the size of the lake had formerly been more considerable than at present.

[Sidenote: VEGETATION OF SANDSTONE HILLS. _May, 1848._]

The vegetation of the country between Jamu and Sirohi Sar was entirely of a tropical character. The rocky hills were in many places covered with thinly scattered pines, all of small size, and generally with much-contorted trunks, but apparently healthy and vigorous. In the cultivated grounds the plants were identical with those of the plains, but, as is usual in all hilly countries, the barren tracts produced a flora of a different character. _Nerium odorum_ was abundant on the banks of streams, and I met with _Cassia fistula_, _Punica_, species of _Rhus_ and _Casearia_, as well as the curious _Euphorbia pentagona_, and now and then the beautiful _Bauhinia Vahlii_. _Acacia modesta_ and a _Zizyphus_ were the most common trees. The lake produced a great variety of water-plants, but except an _Alisma_ and _Dysophylla_, both of which were new to me, the species seemed all natives of the plains.

On the 25th of May, I proceeded along the side of the ridge in an easterly direction, passing several small flat-bottomed depressions, apparently the sites at a former period of small lakes, similar to that from which I had commenced my march. The road was rocky and rugged, and gradually rose several hundred feet to the crest of the ridge. Pine-trees were generally plentiful. On reaching the top, shortly after daybreak, a fine wide undulating valley was seen below, bounded on the north at the distance of about ten miles by a third range of mountains, and traversed by several streams, which had excavated for themselves deep perpendicular-sided ravines in the sandstone strata. All these streams had a westerly course to join the Tawi, which, issuing from a deep valley behind the third range, crossed the open plain in a south-west direction.

[Sidenote: SANDSTONE RANGES. _May, 1848._]

Leaving the ridge, the road descended gradually to the plain, and after crossing a deep ravine, with precipitous walls, continued through a fine level country to the village of Thalaura, about a mile from the third range of hills. The sandstone frequently contained a few waterworn pebbles scattered through it; and a bed of coarse conglomerate, with an indurated matrix, capped the cliff above this ravine. Some strata of indurated clay and soft slate also alternated, but rarely, with the sandstone. The plain was well cultivated, being chiefly laid out in rice-fields; and the people were all busy ploughing, sowing rice, and harrowing with a log of wood, drawn by bullocks and kept down by the weight of a man.

On the earlier rocky part of the road, the vegetation was much the same as the day before. _Dodonæa_ was common, as it is in most parts of this hilly tract, never, however, rising out of the tropical belt. I do not know how far to the eastward of Jamu this plant extends; but as it does not seem to occur to the east of the Sutlej, and probably stops much sooner[18], it appears to prefer a rather dry climate, and will, I think, be found limited to the drier portion of the Peninsula, from which it probably extends through Central India, and along the hilly country west of Sind. On the open plain the pines entirely disappeared, and the aspect of the vegetation was entirely that of the plains of India.

From Thalaura I marched, on the 26th of May, to Ramnagar, crossing the third range of hills, the ascent of which was at first very steep and rocky, over a made road, paved with large stones, in many places much out of repair. This range was also sandstone, dipping to the north at a gentle angle; some strata of indurated clay occurred between the beds of sandstone. These hills were precipitous to the south, and sloped gently towards the north, in the direction of the dip. The tree _Euphorbia_, which, with its stiff fleshy branches springing in verticils of five from the stem, forms a striking feature in the vegetation of the lower hills, was common on the ascent, and the yellow spinous _Astragalus_, which I had observed between the Chenab and Jamu a fortnight before, was frequent on both sides of this ridge; but even at the top, except one species of _Indigofera_, no plants indicating elevation were met with: on this account I omitted to determine the height of the range by the boiling-point of water, but comparing its elevation with that of Ramnagar, which was in sight, I estimated that it might be about 3600 feet. To the north lay another valley, considerably more rugged than that crossed the day before, and evidently much more highly inclined, as its eastern termination was not far distant. This valley was traversed by the principal branch of the Tawi, the source of which is in the mountains east of Ramnagar.

[Sidenote: RAMNAGAR. _May, 1848._]

The descent from this range was very gradual, the road running obliquely to the eastward, among scattered pine-trees, over bare sandstone rocks, till it reached the bank of a small stream separated from the Tawi by a low range of hills. During the descent, a number of plants of Himalayan forms made their appearance, which had not occurred before: these were a berberry, _Rubus flavus_, and _Myrsine bifaria_. _Olea cuspidata_ was seen lower down, and a species of alder grew in shady ravines along the edge of the stream. In the bottom of the valley, the mixture of the forms of the middle and lower zones was curious and interesting. _Pinus longifolia_ occurred with _Phoenix sylvestris_, alder with _Rondeletia_ and _Rottlera_, pear with _Sissoo_, and _Fragaria Indica_ and _Micromeria_ with _Trichodesma_ and _Solanum Jacquini_. At the same time, it was evident that in this dry stony valley the tropical species, which formed the majority, were more at home than the stragglers which had descended from above.

After ascending for a short distance along the banks of the little stream, the road crossed it, and after a short steep ascent from the right bank, the remainder of the day's journey was nearly level, along the sides of hills, or over a high table-land to Ramnagar, a small town and fort, formerly the residence of Rajah Suchet Sing, since whose death the place has been rapidly falling to decay, most of the shops of its well-built bazaar being now empty. There were in the neighbourhood one or two large gardens, in which the trees and plants were nearly all Indian, _Sissoo_ and _Melia Azedarach_ being the most common. A single plane-tree was scarcely an exception; for though undoubtedly more at home at greater elevations, the plane (like the poplar and many of the fruit-trees of temperate climes) does not refuse to grow even in the plains, as is proved by the occurrence of a number of trees of it of considerable size and apparently healthy in gardens at Lahore.

[Sidenote: GARTA. _May, 1848._]

Leaving Ramnagar on the morning of the 27th, I continued to ascend the valley of the Tawi for about three miles, the road running along the sides of the hills among rich cultivation at a considerable height above the stream. It then descended somewhat abruptly to the river, and soon crossed to the right bank, from which a steep ascent commenced at once, and continued, with one or two interruptions of level cultivated ground, to the end of the day's journey. The ascent had throughout a southern exposure, and was in consequence generally bare of trees, and dry and grassy. Much cultivated land was met with, wherever the ground was sufficiently level to admit of it. I encamped at a small village, or rather cluster of farmhouses, called Garta, at a height of about 5800 feet. From the bare grassy nature of the ascent and its hot sunny exposure, the number of species of plants which occurred was very limited, and the change of vegetation much less marked than in better-wooded regions of these mountains. A few oaks (_Q. lanata_) made their appearance about half-way up, or perhaps at 4500 feet.

During this day's journey, I believe that I passed the point of contact of the tertiary sandstone with the more ancient rock, for on the ascent after crossing the river, the strata were very highly inclined, and often bent into large curves. The rock was also more indurated, and different in colour and appearance from that of the outer hills. I did not, however, observe the place where the change took place.

[Sidenote: PATA. _May, 1848._]

Next day, the ascent continued equally steep and bare as the day before, and there was still much cultivation, wherever the surface was sufficiently level for the purpose, or could be made so by means of terracing. During the preceding day's march, the fields of wheat and barley had been for some time cut, but here, though generally ripe, they were still standing. On attaining an elevation of about 7000 feet, the steep spur which I had been ascending joined the main ridge, and the road, turning to the east, entered a thick forest of small oak-trees (_Q. lanata_) through which it continued, alternately descending and ascending a little, as it entered the recesses or advanced along the projecting ridges. The greatest height attained may have been about 8000 feet, and the summit of the range, which was frequently visible, did not seem to be above 1000 feet higher. After about three miles of forest, the hills again became bare, and continued so till the end of the march, which terminated by an abrupt descent of 600 or 700 feet to a ravine, and an equally steep ascent to the village of Pata, which was elevated about 7500 feet. Throughout the day, the vegetation, both in the forest and on the open tracts, was identical with that of the Simla hills. The forest consisted of oak, _Rhododendron_, and _Andromeda_. Pines were visible at the very top of the ridge, but did not cross to the southern exposure: they appeared to be _Picea Webbiana_ (_Pindrow_). The village at which I encamped was of considerable size, with extensive wheat cultivation, very luxuriant and in full ear, but still quite green. Many trees of the glabrous holly-leaved oak were scattered among the fields, which, from the lateral branches having been lopped off by the villagers, rose to a great height with an erect poplar-like trunk, bearing only a small tuft of branches at the top, in a manner very foreign to the usual habit of the tree.

On the 29th of May I crossed the range along which I had travelled the previous day, and descended into a valley watered by a tributary of the Chenab, running towards the north-west. The ascent, which was bare and grassy, amounted only to about 1000 feet in perpendicular height. Close to the top, a few trees of _Picea_ made their appearance, while I was still on the south face of the ridge, and on gaining the crest of the pass, I found that the northern slope was occupied by a fine forest of the same tree. As the range was not sufficiently elevated to produce any really alpine plants, the vegetation presented little worthy of note. _Viburnum nervosum_ was the commonest shrub, and an _Anemone_, a _Ranunculus_, the common _Gypsophila_ and _Trifolium repens_ were the herbs which predominated at the top.

[Sidenote: VALLEY OF DADU. _May, 1848._]

The road descended rapidly through fine forest. The sombre silver fir was, after a short descent, mixed with plenty of horse-chesnut and sycamore, and of the glabrous-leaved oak. Lower down, deodar and _Abies Smithiana_ also appeared, and on arriving in the valley, the forest gave place to cultivated fields, with only a few oak-trees scattered among them. The road now ascended the valley, which was tolerably open and well cultivated. The stream ran through a deep ravine, with steep, well-wooded, often rocky banks, far below the level of the cultivation. I encamped at an elevation of about 6800 feet, at a village called Dadu, or Doda, situated on the edge of a small open plain, covered with luxuriant crops of wheat.

Near the village, and along the edges of the cultivation, were numerous apricot-trees of large size; and a willow, apparently the same which occurs in Kashmir (_S. alba_) was commonly planted. The general appearance of the place was very much that of the villages in lower Kunawar; and I was much interested to find that although the greater part of the vegetation was the same as is common in the outer ranges of the mountains, a few plants indicative of a drier climate were to be seen. I was particularly surprised to find that _Quercus lanata_, _Rhododendron arboreum_, and _Andromeda ovalifolia_, three trees which are everywhere most abundant in the outer ranges of the Himalaya in the temperate zone, had entirely disappeared. The Kashmir _Fothergilla_ was not uncommon, and I noted at least four or five herbaceous plants, which I had first met with in that valley or in Kunawar.

On the northern face of this range, between Pata and Dadu, the sandstone, which had continued since I left the valley of the Tawi, was replaced by a succession of metamorphic slates, sometimes very micaceous. In the valley of Dadu, boulders of gneiss, with crystals of felspar from one to three inches in length, were common, but the rock did not occur _in situ_.

The range of mountains bounding the valley on the south, did not appear to rise anywhere to a greater height than between 9000 and 10,000 feet, and where I crossed it, was not, I should think, higher than 8500. Immediately to the east of this low pass, however, it began to rise rapidly, and at the head of the valley lay a high snowy mountain, evidently a projecting peak of a long range descending from the north-east, and forming the boundary between the basins of the Chenab and the Ravi. This range, which in most places must be upwards of 11,000 feet, and which in some probably rises to 14,000, must, I think, to some extent check the progress of the masses of clouds during the monsoon, and therefore tend to diminish the quantity of rain, particularly as the rain-clouds come from the eastward, on which account the lower altitude of the ridge to the south-west is of less importance.

Halting at Dadu on the 30th of May, my road on the 31st lay up the valley towards the snowy range to the eastward. Cultivation did not continue beyond the village; and after a steep, somewhat rocky ascent and descent over a bare spur, I followed the course of the stream as nearly as the precipitous nature of its banks would permit, through a forest of sycamore, walnut, alder, horse-chesnut, and holly-leaved oak. Pines also were abundant, of the four common species: namely, deodar, spruce, silver fir, and _Pinus excelsa_. After following the course of the river for about a mile, the road crossed a large lateral tributary descending from the right, and ascended a steep bare spur between it and the main stream for perhaps 500 feet, after which it ran for some distance through fields of wheat still green, at first at a considerable distance above the stream, the bed of which, however, rose so rapidly that a very short descent brought me again to its banks. I then re-entered a beautiful forest, principally pine, in which the _Pindrow_ was now the most common tree, bearing in abundance its erect purple cones. As the road rose rapidly, the vegetation soon began to change: _Syringa Emodi_, a currant, and other plants of the sub-alpine zone, making their appearance. The most common shrubby plants were _Viburnum nervosum_ and _Spiræa Lindleyana_, both of which occurred in vast quantity. For perhaps a mile and a half, the valley was extremely beautiful; the torrent being rocky and rapid, and the forest very fine. The road then crossed the stream by a good wooden bridge, and a steep ascent commenced. As the forest was confined to the bottom of the valley, I soon emerged on dry grassy slopes. The precipitous nature of the banks rendered it necessary to ascend nearly 1000 feet, after which the road was again level along the dry mountain slope facing the south. The bed of the stream rose very rapidly, so that the road soon re-approached it; and when nearly on a level with it, I again entered forest, in which _Quercus semecarpifolia_, the alpine oak of Himalaya, was the prevailing tree. After about a mile, having attained an elevation of 10,000 feet, I encamped on an open grassy spot in the forest. The ravines facing the north had for some time been full of snow, but I had got close to camp before any appeared in those on the right bank, along which the road lay. A snowy peak, the upper part of which was high above the level of trees, lay to the south-east.

[Sidenote: ASCENT TOWARDS PASS. _May, 1848._]

In the lower part of the ascent, the rock was clay-slate; but near my camp it was succeeded by the same gneiss, with large crystals of felspar, which I had found (in boulders) around Dadu. In general appearance, this gneiss was very similar to that observed on the mountains north of Nasmon, on the Chenab; and as these two places have nearly the same relative position as the usual line of strike in the north-western Himalaya, it is very probable that the rock is the same in both.

On the morning of the 1st of June, I continued to follow the course of the stream, ascending now very gently. The valley was open, and the road lay over undulating grassy ground, the forest having receded to some distance on both sides. Round my camp I had noticed very little in the vegetation different from what was common one or two thousand feet lower; but almost immediately after starting, I found myself among numerous bushes of _Rhododendron campanulatum_ in full flower, and many other alpine plants appeared very shortly afterwards: of these, perhaps the most lovely was the elegant _Primula rosea_, which was extremely plentiful in hollow marshy spots from which snow had recently melted.

[Sidenote: PASS SOUTH OF BADARWAR _June, 1848._]

The ascent continued exceedingly gentle till close to the end, when, turning suddenly to the left into a pine-clad ravine, a few steps brought me to the crest of the ridge over which my road ran,--a lateral spur from the great snowy mass, which (as is often the case) was a good deal lower where it branched off than at a greater distance from the main range. After gaining the crest of the ridge, I followed it for a few hundred yards previous to commencing the descent. I had unfortunately somewhat rashly concluded, the day before, that the ascent during the day would be very trifling, and therefore did not carry with me the means of ascertaining the elevation of the pass; I believe, however, that it a little exceeded 11,000 feet. It was still in the forest zone. The trees were mostly the alpine oak, with a few scattered individuals of _Pinus excelsa_. At a short distance, on the more shady slope, and still higher than the pass, _Picea_ was plentiful. The highest level of trees only rose a few hundred feet above me, and the lofty snowy peak which lay to the southward, attaining a height of probably little under 14,000 feet, was quite bare.

[Sidenote: BADARWAR. _June, 1848._]

I reached the summit of the ridge between nine and ten A.M., at which time a dense mass of heavy clouds filled the whole of the valley below, while the sky above was perfectly clear. Vivid flashes of lightning were seen, accompanied by loud thunder, and the clouds were in violent commotion, being driven about by violent gusts of wind; but in less than half an hour they had entirely disappeared, disclosing a most magnificent view, bounded only by the grand snowy range beyond the Chenab, stretching in both directions as far as the eye could reach. Much nearer lay a second range of snowy mountains, evidently that which runs parallel to the Chenab on the south. Still nearer were other ranges of mountains, which, from the elevation at which I stood, looked like gently undulating hills. Immediately below, lay the rich and fertile valley of Badarwar, to which the descent was extremely rapid, down the face of a projecting spur, densely covered for the upper half of the way with forest. At the top of the pass, there were here and there, on slopes facing the north, large patches of snow, especially under the shade of trees, but on the descent it appeared only in the most shady ravines. As the elevation diminished, the same change in the forest was observed as during the ascent. The alpine oak and spruce gave place to horse-chesnut, sycamore, and holly-leaved oak, with deodar and spruce. Lower down, cultivation appeared, and the road, lying on the southern slope of the spin, was generally bare and grassy, with only a few scattered deodar-trees of small size. At the base of the descent, clay-slate rocks replaced the gneiss.

The town of Badarwar is of considerable size, containing, I should think, not less than from three to four hundred houses, all, however, small and without any indication of wealth. It lies at the elevation of 5800 feet, in the upper part of a valley watered by a tributary of the Chenab, from which it is distant, according to Vigne, twelve or fourteen miles. Round the town the valley is two or three miles in width, and completely covered with fields, rising in terraces one above another. Some rice is cultivated, but millet and Indian corn, neither of which were yet sown, are, I was informed, the principal produce.

The vegetation of the valley of Badarwar was hardly at all different from that of the one which I had just left, and the few new forms which occurred were for the most part Kashmir species. _Quercus lanata_, and the trees usually associated with it, did not occur; but _Fothergilla_ was plentiful in the woods on the hill-sides, and in open exposed sunny places a Kashmir _Daphne_ and _Zizyphus_ were common: both of these species, however, are natives of the Sutlej valley. In the shady ravines a species of _Philadelphus_, and the _Nima_ of Hamilton, were met with. Vines were cultivated near the town, as well as a few trees of _Populus nigra_, and a rough small-leaved elm, which grew to a gigantic size.

From Badarwar two roads were open to me, by either of which I could reach Chatargarh on the Chenab, from which place there is a road into Zanskar. One of these follows the course of the Badarwar valley to its junction with the Chenab, and ascends that river by Kishtwar; the other crosses the mountains to the eastward, so as to get into the valley of the Ravi, and to join the road which leads from Chamba to Zanskar. Of these I selected the latter, which appeared to present the advantages of being less known, of leading through a more elevated country, and also (as I was led to believe) of saving several days.

[Sidenote: PADRI PASS. _June, 1848._]

I started from Badarwar on the morning of the 3rd of June, and proceeded up the valley in a south-easterly direction, towards the Padri pass, a depression in the range which separates the districts drained by the Chenab from those whose waters run towards the Ravi. At first the road lay through cultivation. The fields of barley were ripe, those of wheat still green, and considerably more backward than at the same height in valleys more distant from the snow. The elevation of the valley increased gently but steadily, and its breadth gradually diminished as I advanced, the fields becoming reduced to a narrow strip along the bank of the stream, and then ceasing altogether. The road lay on the right bank, and was generally open, but the opposite slopes and ravines were often prettily wooded. After three miles the road began to ascend the hill-sides on the north of the valley, for about a mile gently, but afterwards more steeply. The hill-sides were bare, but on the opposite side of the valley there was a fine forest; and as soon as the road had attained the crest of the ridge or spur, the same dense forest was observed to cover the whole of its steep northern face, stopping abruptly at the top. As the elevation increased, the trees and herbaceous vegetation exhibited the same gradual change which I had noted on the ascent two days before, and I met with very few species which I had not collected at that time. In the shady woods on the northern slope of the ridge, I found the little Kashmir _Hepatica_, another instance of the extension to the eastward of plants characteristic of that valley. Near the top _Thermopsis barbata_ was plentiful, in full flower, on open stony banks. The ascent continued steep to the top of the pass, the height of which was 10,000 feet. The top was nearly level for some distance, and was covered with large patches of snow. The continuation of the range to the north was undulating and grassy, and the hills of very moderate elevation above the level of the pass. To the southward they rose abruptly to a considerable height, and the ravines were filled with forest. I encamped on a grassy plain close to the top. The morning had been cloudy, and after eleven A.M. it rained smartly till evening; the temperature at sunset was 47½°.

[Sidenote: LANGERA. _June, 1848._]

Next morning, before commencing the descent, I ascended a ridge on the mountains to the south, to the height of about 1000 feet above the pass. The snow had evidently only just melted from the greater part of the surface; it still lay in large patches under the trees, and the spring plants were just bursting into flower. The forest, as is usually the case at that height, was principally the alpine oak. A rose, willow, currant, cherry, _Lonicera_, and _Viburnum nervosum_ were bursting into leaf, and _Rhododendron campanulatum_ was abundant and in full flower. The greater part of the herbaceous vegetation consisted of _Primula denticulata_, a yellow _Corydalis_, and species of _Thermopsis_, _Anemone_, _Caltha_, _Onosma_, _Potentilla_, _Valeriana_, _Trillium_, and _Gentiana_. I continued to ascend to the limit of herbaceous vegetation, stopping only where the ground was uninterruptedly covered with snow. The uppermost level of trees was still at least 500 feet above me. In descending I followed the course of a ravine full of snow, the sides of which were covered by a dense forest of silver fir.

After reaching the direct road from the pass, which I had quitted to ascend the hills in the morning, there was a short ascent over a low spur, and then a long and very steep descent, to the bottom of a deep rocky ravine, so narrow and sheltered from the sun's rays, that the stream was still covered with a great thickness of snow. Over this I crossed to the north side of the valley, down which the road ran for the remainder of the march, descending at first with great rapidity, but on the latter half much more gently. There was plenty of fine forest, but, as usual, it was for the most part confined to the south side of the valley. The road lay along grassy slopes, sometimes steep and rocky, at other times, where there was any extent of tolerably level ground, covered knee-deep with a rank herbage of dock, _Polygona_, thistles, and a variety of other plants not yet in flower. It was in general at a considerable height above the bottom of the valley, which was deep and gloomy, and filled with snow during a great part of the way. I encamped at a village called Langera, at the height of about 7600 feet, and was surprised to observe large patches of snow still lying on the banks of the stream, at least three hundred feet below me.

[Sidenote: DEGHI. _June, 1848._]

On the 5th of June, my road again lay on the left side of the valley, and usually along the hill-sides at some height above the stream, to which it descended only once or twice. The valley was very pretty, being generally deep and more or less rocky, and on the south side well wooded. For the first three miles, large patches of snow were seen now and then in the most shady parts, more than once covering over the stream. The forest presented a good deal of variety. Except _Picea_, all the common pines occurred, as well as horse-chesnut, cherry, elm, _Celtis_, _Populus ciliata_, and holly-leaved oak. _Fothergilla_ was very common all along, and on the latter half of the march _Quercus lanata_ and _Andromeda ovalifolia_ made their appearance. The occurrence of these trees I regarded as a sure indication that the rains were somewhat more heavy than on the west side of the pass, and as a confirmation of the view I had taken when in Badarwar, that the climate of that valley was considerably modified by the occurrence of a high and partially snowy range to the eastward. Throughout the day's journey there was a good deal of cultivation, always considerably above the stream; and at the village of Deghi, at which I encamped, at about 5800 feet, the fields of wheat were being cut, clearly showing that the climate was much milder on the east side of the pass than at the same elevation in Badarwar, where they had been still quite green two days before.

On the 6th of June, I again followed the course of the valley, at a considerable height on the steep but well-cultivated hill-sides overlooking a deep and pretty glen. The slopes along which the road ran were bare, or covered with scattered brushwood, trees only occurring in ravines, but the opposite bank was usually well wooded. I encamped at a small village called Buju (just below 5000 feet), considerably higher than the bottom of the valley. The vegetation was in most respects (except the occurrence of _Fothergilla_, which was plentiful) what is usual in the neighbourhood of Simla, at similar elevations. Several species of the sub-tropical belt occurred, mixed with the ordinary plants of the middle zone, such as _Marlea_, _Albizzia mollis_, _Olea cuspidata_, _Xanthoxylon_, and others, and in the neighbourhood of Buju _Pinus longifolia_ was common on the south side of the valley.

From Badarwar to the summit of the Padri pass, and throughout the descent, clay-slate had been the prevailing rock. It varied much in appearance, and latterly it alternated with a conglomerate, and was often very fragile, splitting into thin shaly layers. Near the village of Dewar, a hard bluish limestone occurred in considerable quantity, close to the river.

[Sidenote: DISTRICT OF CHAMBA. _June, 1848._]

The general direction of my journey, while descending this valley, had been south-east, the elevation of the mountains on my left hand having been too great to permit me to turn to the north. On this march, however, about three miles from its termination, at a village called Dewar, I left the road to Chamba, which there crosses the stream and proceeds direct over low hills to the Ravi, while the valley (and my road) turned suddenly to the north-east. A little below my camp at Buju, the river resumed its former direction, and, uniting itself with a large stream descending from the northward, took a southerly course, to join the Ravi.

[Sidenote: VALLEY NORTH OF CHAMBA. _June, 1848._]

Along the valley, which descended from the north, ran the road from Chamba to Chatargarh on the Chenab, and on the 7th I proceeded in that direction. The two streams, at their junction, flowed through an extremely deep rocky ravine, so that I had several fatiguing ascents and descents before I succeeded in passing into the valley which I wished to ascend. I was, however, gratified, at the highest part of the road, where I turned for the first time fairly towards the north, by a superb view of the snowy range, towards which I was now travelling. On the 8th and 10th of June (having halted on the 9th) I continued to ascend the valley, encamping on the latter day at 8000 feet. During both days, many parts of the road were very rocky and difficult, with frequent steep ascents. At other times, when it was more level, very long detours were necessary, to pass deep lateral ravines. The valley was in general open, and the hill-sides only sparingly wooded, though at intervals along the stream there was a fine and dense forest of oaks, horse-chesnut, laurels, and _Celtis_. The ranges of mountains on both sides were tipped with snow, and from my camp of the 10th the snowy range in front appeared so close, that I could scarcely give credence to the assurances of my guides that I was still a good day's journey from its base.

Since I had left Jamu, the weather had been very uniform. The mornings were generally fine, with a cloudless sky and little or no wind; towards the afternoon, or if not then, certainly in the evening or during the night, clouds collected, and it rained heavily. This was of daily occurrence; sometimes the rain lasted for several hours, but before morning the sky was always serene. The atmosphere was hazy, as is usually the case in the Himalaya during the dry season, before the accession of the rains.

[Sidenote: ALPINE VEGETATION. _June, 1848._]

On the 11th, I continued to ascend the valley. At the commencement of the march, the hills were bare and open, and the vegetation was still entirely that of the middle zone. There was a good deal of cultivation, and the wheat was still green. After crossing several ravines, the road began to ascend rapidly through a wood of small trees of holly-leaved oak, interspersed with numerous small patches of cultivation. Among the corn, _Adonis æstivalis_, and a number of other common Kashmir weeds, were abundant, and apricot-trees were commonly planted. By degrees, other trees were mingled with the oaks, and the forest became very dense, with luxuriant undergrowth of _Indigoferæ_, _Spiræa Lindleyana_, and _Philadelphus_, and a vine was common, climbing up the trunks of the trees. Numerous open glades, covered with a luxuriant herbaceous vegetation of dock and other rank plants, were met with in the forest, which, though not so beautiful, a good deal resembled that of Mahasu, near Simla. On the opposite and shady side of the valley, the forest seemed to be chiefly composed of pines. As the elevation increased, silver fir and alpine oak began to appear, and soon became the only trees in the forest. The ravines were now all full of snow, the oaks were still in flower, and there was little or no vegetation under their shade, except in swampy places, where a bright yellow _Caltha_ and a pink _Dentaria_ were in full flower. I encamped at 10,600 feet, on an open grassy spot overlooking a deep ravine full of snow, which lay between me and the snowy range in front.

On emerging from the forest, which extended close to my camp, I found myself surrounded by a truly alpine vegetation. _Rhododendron campanulatum_, which is certainly, when _en masse_ and in full flower, the pride of our northern Indian mountains in early spring, was in vast abundance and great beauty. The hills around were covered with birch; _Rhododendron lepidotum_, _Gaultheria trichocarpa_, _Deutzia corymbosa_, willows, and many other alpine shrubs, covered the rocks, and the moist grassy sward of the open spots was adorned with the brilliant flowers of _Primula denticulata_, _Corydalis Govaniana_, _Gagea_, _Caltha_, and other plants. The sky was brilliantly clear, the very heavy rain of the preceding day having, for the time, quite removed the usual haze, and the view from my tent was superb. The last village in the valley was many miles behind, and no cultivation was anywhere in sight. The opposite spurs, which rose, like that on which my tent was pitched, abruptly from the snowy ravine, were beautifully wooded, up to the limit of forest, while all above was covered with snow.

[Sidenote: ASCENT TOWARDS SACH PASS. _June, 1848._]

On the 12th of June, I crossed the snowy range into the valley of the Chenab. At starting, the road lay through forest, which covered the precipitous face of the rocky hill overhanging the deep ravine above which I had encamped. After crossing the ravine, which was full of snow, the road ascended a bare steep slope, which was swampy and covered with _Caltha_ and _Primulæ_. Every other part of the face of the hill was occupied by a dense jungle of shrubs, almost impenetrable from the prostrate position which their branches had taken from the pressure of the winter's snow. Very stunted bushes of _Quercus semecarpifolia_ constituted the greater part of this shrubby jungle. With it grew _Rhododendron campanulatum_, a cherry, and a birch, whose silvery trunks rose conspicuous above all the others. This dense covering of shrubs being confined to the lower part of the slope, the road soon rose above its level, and continued obliquely along the face of the bare grassy hill, rising very gently, and by degrees approaching the line of snow. I observed that the line of the highest level of trees varied much according to the exposure, being more elevated on the shady side than on slopes exposed to the sun. The snow level, as might have been expected, was extremely indefinite, varying with the degree of inclination of the surface, with the absence or presence of trees, and especially with the exposure. On the slope facing the south, it was about 12,000 feet, while on that opposite it descended among the trees several hundred feet lower. Close to the snow, among rocks and in swampy places, the alpine vegetation was extremely luxuriant and beautiful.

After skirting the snow for perhaps half a mile, I descended a little to cross a ravine, and immediately after began to ascend rapidly over snow, which was hard and firm, so that it was traversed without difficulty. Throughout the whole ascent, there were at intervals steep slopes and masses of rock bare of snow, and even on the smallest of these spots vegetation was making rapid progress, under the encouragement of a powerful sun and abundant moisture. The plants observed were all alpine: among the number were several _Primulæ_, and species of _Draba_, _Potentilla_, _Sibbaldia_, _Ranunculus_, and _Pedicularis_. The ascent continued steady to the top of the pass, which was a mass of bare rock, quite free of snow, and elevated 14,800 feet. The pass (the name of which is _Sach Joth_) was a deep depression in the crest of the range, which rose on both sides to a considerable height. The ridge was a mass of black slate rock, in highly inclined strata, on which no snow lay, and which absorbed so much heat from the sun, that a number of minute plants were not only vegetating but in full flower. _Primula minutissima_ and a yellow _Draba_ were common, and a little _Ranunculus_ and _Potentilla_, with one moss and a species of lichen, also occurred more sparingly. The view from the pass was extensive to the southward, but to the north entirely intercepted by lofty precipitous ridges, distant not more than a mile. The morning had been beautiful, but before I reached the summit, a high wind had sprung up from the south, drifting heavy watery clouds over the crest, from which there were slight showers of hail.

[Sidenote: DESCENT INTO THE VALLEY OF THE CHENAB. _June, 1848._]

The descent on the north side was over snow, commencing a few feet from the rocky crest of the pass. After the first few hundred yards, the snow-bed was very steep, and perhaps covered a small glacier. Further on, the mountains on both sides closed in so as to form a narrow valley, the course of which I followed for many miles, before I could find a bare spot upon which to encamp. The valley was bounded on both sides by exceedingly steep rocky mountains, sometimes quite precipitous, which soon became bare of snow. After descending rapidly for a considerable time, patches of juniper appeared on the hill-sides, succeeded by birch, and soon after by a few pines, which, from their shape, were, I believe, silver fir. A little lower, pines became frequent wherever the mountain-sides were not absolutely precipitous; _Picea_ and _Pinus_ excelsa were first recognized, and a little lower down _Abies Smithiana_; deodar did not appear till I had nearly reached the end of the day's journey. I encamped at 8500 feet, on the first available bare spot, among a few pine-trees.

From the summit of the pass till within a few hundred yards of my encampment, snow was continuous in the valley along which I descended, covering the stream and the whole of the level portion of the valley for many miles after it had melted from the steep sloping hills on both sides, on which vegetation was already making rapid progress. This snow-bed was not in the least icy, but consisted of pure snow, much compressed and often dirty. Its slope followed that of the valley, and its surface was quite smooth till close to its termination, where it was broken up into fragments by the fall of portions into the stream below. The greater permanence of snow in valleys and ravines than on mountain slopes seems to be due to its accumulation there during the winter to a great depth by avalanches from both sides.

FOOTNOTES:

[18] I have been told by Dr. Jameson that he has met with it in the Kangra hills, but that he has never seen it in Mandi.