Part 2

In all moist meadows and swampy places, from April to June, the eye is pleased with a multitude of waving flowers which in the aggregate look white, but at close quarters are seen to be a pale pink or lilac. They are Shakespeare’s “Lady’s smocks all silver-white,” that “paint the meadows with delight.” It is our first example of the Cruciferous plants, the four petals of whose flowers are arranged in the form of a Maltese cross. Its leaves are cut up into a variable number of leaflets; those from the roots having the leaflets more or less rounded, those from the stem narrower. The radical leaves as they lie on the wet ground root at every leaflet, and develop a tiny plant from each. The flowers are nearly ¾ of an inch across.

There are three other native species:--

Hairy Bitter Cress (_C. hirsuta_), with white flowers, ⅛th of an inch in diameter; anthers yellow.

Large-flowered Bitter Cress (_C. amara_), with creamy white flowers ½ inch in diameter; anthers purple. Riversides: rare.

Narrow-leaved Bitter-Cress (_C. impatiens_), white flowers, ¼ inch across; anthers yellow. Shady copses, local.

Name from the Greek _Kardamon_, a kind of watercress.

=Shepherd’s Purse= (_Capsella bursa-pastoris_).

One need not travel far to find a specimen of Shepherd’s Purse, for almost any spot of earth that man has tilled will furnish it. Wherever his fork or spade has gone in temperate regions this plant has gone with him, and stayed. The flowers are very minute, white, and are succeeded by the heart-shaped seed-vessel (capsule) which gives its name to the whole plant, from its resemblance to an ancient form of rustic pouch. This splits into two valves, and the numerous seeds drop out. The only native species: flowers throughout summer.

Name: Latin, diminutive of _Capsula_, a little box.

=The Wood Sorrel= (_Oxalis acetosella_).

One of the most graceful and charming of native plants. It abounds in moist shady woods, rapidly covering the leaf-mould with its fresh yellow-green trefoils and pink-streaked white flowers. In such a situation in April or May it produces beautiful effects. A favourite position for it is the rotten centre of some old beech stump, from which it will spread in a loose cluster, “covering with strange and tender honour the scarred disgrace of ruin,” as Ruskin says of the lichens.

The roots are fine and scattered along the creeping knotted pink stems. The leaflets droop close to the stalk at night or on the approach of rain. The flower is regular; sepals five, petals five, stamens ten, stigmas five. The fruit is a five-angled, irritable capsule, from which the seeds are thrown with great force to a distance of several yards. In addition to the coloured spring flowers the Wood-Sorrel produces throughout the summer a large number of buds which never open (_cleistogamous_), but which develop into seed-vessels and discharge good seeds. The leaves have a pleasant acid flavour, due to the presence of oxalic acid. The generic name refers to this fact, and is derived from the Greek _Oxys_, sharp.

This is the only truly native species, but two others with _yellow_ flowers have become naturalized in the S.W. of England. These are:

Procumbent Wood-sorrel (_O. corniculata_), with much-branched stalk; both stalk and branches soon becoming procumbent; and the flowers borne two or three on one peduncle. Leaves and stalks bronzed. Flowers June to September.

Upright Yellow Wood-sorrel (_O. stricta_), similar to the last, but with stem more erect; flowers two to eight on one peduncle.

=The Wallflower= (_Cheiranthus cheiri_).

This is not a British plant, though it has become firmly established on many old ruins throughout the country. It is a native of Central and Northern Europe, and according to Loudon was introduced to England in 1573. It is never found growing on rocks in this country, as would be the case were it a native. In some districts it is known as Gillyflower, a name corrupted from the French, _Giroflée de Muraille_. Old writers who use the name Gillyflower refer to the Clove Pink; in the present day the plant usually intended by the term is the Garden Stock. Culpepper calls this Winter Gillyflower. The wild plants are always the single yellow variety.

It is a Cruciferous plant, like the Bittercress and Shepherd’s Purse, and the structure of the flowers is very similar to those. The sepals are very long, and for economy’s sake that part of the petal that is hidden within the calyx is a narrow claw. The long ovary is surmounted by the two-lobed stigma, and develops into a long pod, 2 or 2½ inches long, containing a large number of reddish seeds. It flowers in May and June chiefly, but also irregularly in mild winters.

It is the only species occurring wild, but in the garden it has produced many grand varieties. The name is most probably derived from the Greek, _cheir_, the hand, and _anthos_, flower--that is a flower suited by its fragrance to be held as a bouquet.

The Cruciferæ, to which these plants belong, is an important Natural Order, containing five-and-twenty British genera and a great many species. All are distinguished by the cruciform flowers, by means of which a botanist can distinguish a crucifer at once. Many of our most important garden and kitchen herbs are crucifers, including the majority of our green vegetables and roots, such as cabbage, turnip, radish, mustard (_see_ p. 90), cress, kale, etc.

=Marsh Marigold= (_Caltha palustris_).

In marshes and river-meadows in spring this is the most conspicuous plant, and to acquire it the rambler will not hesitate to risk getting wet feet. What time the sallow first puts out her silvery “palm,” the Marigolds then “shine like fire in swamps and hollows grey” (Tennyson). In some districts it is the May-blob, Mare-blob, and Marybud. It has a thick, creeping rootstock, and broadly heart-shaped glossy leaves with very large stipules. After flowering the leaves increase in size considerably, and in some places they reach an enormous size for so small a plant. The flower has no petals, but the five sepals are enlarged and richly coloured, as with gold, and burnished. The centre of the cup is occupied by a number of carpels, which are surrounded by an indefinite crowd of stamens, and which develop after fertilization into as many follicles containing great store of seeds. The plant is poisonous. The flowering time lasts from April till August.

There is one other British species--some say it is a mere variety of the foregoing--Rooting Marsh Marigold (_C. radicans_), with triangular leaves and rooting stems. It occurs only in Forfarshire, and is very rare.

The name is derived from the Greek, _Kalathos_, a cup, in allusion to the form of the flower.

=Wild Hyacinth, or Blue-Bell= (_Scilla nutans_).

After the daisy, buttercup and primrose, few wild flowers are better known than the Blue-bell or Wild Hyacinth. In the very earliest days of spring its leaves break through the earth and lay in rosette fashion close to the surface, leaving a circular tube through which the spike of pale unopened buds soon arises. A few premature individuals may be seen in full flower at quite an early date; but it is not until spring is fully and fairly with us that we can look through the woods under the trees and see millions of them swaying like a blue mist; or, as Tennyson has finely and truly worded it, “that seem the heavens upbreaking through the earth.” This must not be confounded with the Blue-bell of Scotland, which is _Campanula rotundifolia_ (_see_ page 78).

If we dig up an entire specimen we shall find that, like the hyacinth of the florist, its foundation is a roundish bulb, in this case somewhat less than an inch in diameter at its stoutest part. The leaves have parallel sides, or, as the botanist would say, they are linear; and before the plant has done flowering they have reached the length of a foot or more, whilst the flower-stalk is nearly as long again. Before the flowers open the buds are all erect, but these gradually assume a drooping attitude; though when the seeds are ripening the capsule again becomes erect.

The flower is an elongated bell, showing no distinction between calyx and corolla; it is therefore called a perianth. It consists of six floral leaves, joined together at their bases, the free portions curling back and disclosing the six yellow anthers, which are attached to the sides of the perianth, one to each segment. The ovary is surmounted by the thread-like style, ending in a minute stigma. The capsule is three-celled, and when the seeds are ripe each cell splits down the side to release the shining black seeds.

The Genus _Scilla_ belongs to the Natural Order Liliaceæ; its name is classical, and probably derived from the Greek _Skyllo_, to annoy, in allusion to the bulbs being poisonous. There are two other native species:--

The Vernal Squill (_S. vernalis_). Flower-scapes, one or two, not so long as leaves. Like _S. nutans_, it has a couple of long bracts at the base of the pedicels, as the short stalks are called, which connect the flowers with the tall scape. This is a rare plant, occurring only in rocky pastures near the west coast from Flint to Devon; also Ayr and Berwick to Shetland, and in the E. and N. E. of Ireland. April and May.

The Autumnal Squill (_S. autumnalis_) throws up several flower-scapes before the leaves. Flowers, reddish-purple, not drooping, but spreading or erect; July to September in dry pastures from Gloucester to Cornwall, from Middlesex to Kent. No bracts.

=The Cuckoo-pint= (_Arum maculatum_).

Lords-and-Ladies, Cuckoo-pintle, Priest’s-pintle, Calves-foot, Starchwort, Ramp, and Wake-robin are also names by which this very familiar spring-plant is known in different localities. Its appearance is remarkable, and its structure no less interesting. About a foot below the surface of woods and hedgebanks is the tuberous rootstock, from which arise above ground in March the handsome arrow-shaped leaves, more or less spotted with red or purple. From the midst of these leaves in April rises the flower-stalk, bearing an enormous pale-green rolled-up bract-leaf, of similar nature to the small thin bract we observed at the base of the pedicels in _Scilla_, but larger than the ordinary leaves. It unrolls and then resembles a monk’s-cowl, and also discloses a purplish cylindric column. The green envelope is called a spathe, and must not be taken for a flower. The flowers are there in great number, but they are small and arranged round the lower part of the central column (spadix). The lower third of the spathe is marked off from the rest by a slight constriction, and if with a sharp knife we slice off the front portion of this part we shall there find the flowers in four series.

Proceeding downwards we first find a ring of abortive stamens, each ending in a long, deflexed hair. A little lower is a series of perfect anthers, and below these a similar group of pistils, the topmost row of which consists of abortive organs with hair-like processes. Small flies are attracted to the spathe by the carrion-like colour and odour of the spadix, and explore the lower premises. The hairs allow easy descent, but prevent return. If the flies have already been in an Arum flower they bring with them pollen on wings and feet, and find the stigmas ripe to receive it. When these are no longer fit for fertilization the anthers open and discharge their pollen in a shower on the insects; the stigmas secrete honey as a reward to the imprisoned flies, and the upper series of hairs shrivel up and set the insects free to carry their pollen to another Arum.

The spathe and spadix wither, but the ovaries develop into codlin-shaped pale scarlet berries. This species is plentiful throughout the country. There is one other species, _Arum italicum_, found locally from Cornwall to Sussex. It is larger and stouter in all respects; the upper part of the spathe bending over, and the spadix yellow. Flowers in June.

=Lily of the Valley= (_Convallaria majalis_).

=Solomon’s Seal= (_Polygonatum multiflorum_).

These plants are very familiar as garden flowers; they are nevertheless natives, though by no means common in the wild state. Both are characterized by having thick creeping rootstocks. _Convallaria_ differs from _Polygonatum_ in having no stem; the two or three leaves springing direct from the rootstock. The flower is a bell-shaped perianth, the mouth split into six recurved lobes. Stamens six, attached to the base of the perianth, around the ovary, which ultimately becomes a globose red berry. It is much more widely distributed than _Polygonatum_. In woods; flowers May and June. Name from the Latin _Convallis_, a valley. The only British species.

Solomon’s Seal has a distinct arching stem, with alternate erect leaves. The flower-stalks spring from the axils of the leaves, and bear from two to five greenish-white flowers each. The berries that succeed the flowers are blue-black. The flowers are similarly formed to the last-mentioned, but longer, more tubular, and the lobes not turned back. The stamens are attached about half-way down the perianth. There are two other native species, both rare.

The Angular Solomon’s Seal (_P. officinale_), much smaller than the last, the flowers mostly occurring singly, larger and greener. Wooded limestone cliffs, May and June.

Narrow-leaved Solomon’s Seal (_P. verticillatum_), with leaves in whorls around the angled stem. Wooded glens, Northumberland, Perth and Forfar only. June and July; very rare.

Name from the Greek, _polys_, many, and _gonatos_, a knee or angle, in allusion to the many nodes.

=Hawthorn= (_Cratægus oxyacantha_).

The Hawthorn, May, or Whitethorn, is too well known to require much description. Its more familiar appearance is as a hedge-forming shrub, when it is not allowed to have any natural form, but in the woodlands it becomes a round-headed tree, and when fully in flower looks like a monstrous snow-ball on a stalk. The tyro in botany can tell almost with a glance at its beautiful flowers that it is a member of the great order of Roses, and not distantly removed from the apple section of that order. The calyx-tube adheres to the ovary, and the five petals are inserted at the mouth of the calyx. The stamens are numerous; the styles one, two, or three, corresponding with the number of carpels. In the fruit these are covered by the red, fleshy coat in which the bony cells are enveloped, and which is valued as a food by birds in autumn and winter.

May and June are the usual months for flowering, but occasionally it is in blossom at the end of April. Though the characteristic odour from these flowers is sweet, now and then a tree will be found whose every flower gives out a distinctly fishy flavour that is far from pleasant; often, too, it may be found with pink or crimson blossoms. This is the only British species. The name is from the Greek, _Kratos_, strength, in allusion to the hardness of its wood.

=Buttercup= (_Ranunculus acris_).

There are three species of _Ranunculus_ to which the name of Buttercup is applied impartially; but the one to which it most properly belongs is the Bulbous Crowfoot (_R. bulbosus_), in which the cup-shape is more perfect than in the others. We have already dealt with the general characters of the genus in describing the Lesser Celandine: here we will glance only at the specific differences between this and the other buttercup-species of Ranunculus or Crowfoot.

I. _Ranunculus acris_ is the Upright Crowfoot. The rootstock is straight and erect. The lower leaves are divided into wedge-shaped segments, which are again much cut up--the upper leaves less intricately so. The petals are broader than in the Celandine, and fewer--usually five, more or less flat when fully expanded. Flower-stalk not furrowed; sepals spreading. Stem one to three feet high. Meadows and pastures everywhere, June and July.

II. _R. repens_, the Creeping Crowfoot. Rootstock stout, stem declining, _with long runners_. Flower-stalk _furrowed_, sepals spreading, but petals less so than in _R. acris_. Stem one to two feet. Pastures and waste places, too frequent, May to August.

III. _R. bulbosus_, Bulbous Crowfoot. Stem erect, half to one foot, greatly swollen at base: no runners. Flower-stalk furrowed, _sepals turned back_, nearly or quite touching the stalk; petals not spreading, but cup-shaped. Meadows everywhere, April to July.

The name Ranunculus is derived from the Latin, _Rana_, a frog, in allusion to the damp meadows and the ponds where certain species are to be found in company with frogs.

=Wall Barley= (_Hordeum murinum_).

In all waste places on a sandy soil, near towns and villages especially, the Wall Barley, Mouse Barley, Barley-grass, or Way-bent flourishes. At the base of walls is a favourite post for it, where it collects dust, and generally contributes to an appearance of untidiness. Its bristly spike is well known to the schoolboy, who breaks it off and inserts the stem end in the cuff of his shirt-sleeve, whence it works its way automatically to the shoulder. If the spike is cut across its length, the spikelets of which it is made up may be separated and examined with a lens. It will then be seen that the spikelets are borne in threes side by side, but that only the central one is a perfect one, the lateral ones being barren. Taking this central one from the others, we find two outer inflated scales (_glumes_) embracing two other scales, one of which, with the cleft tip and two keels on the back, is the _pale_, the other, ending in a long awn, is the flowering glume, within which is the ovary, surmounted by its two feathery stigmas. From beneath the ovary spring the three stamens and two minute scales, called _lodicules_, which answer to the perianth in ordinary flowers. It would be well to quite master this arrangement by dissection, for all grass flowers are built on a similar plan.

_Hordeum_ is the old Latin name for barley. Flowers June and July.

=Jagged Chickweed= (_Holosteum umbellatum_).

This is a very rare plant, occurring only on old walls about Norwich, Bury and Eye. The rambler in those localities might pass it by as a variety of the vulgar Chickweed, to which, however, it is distantly related. The small white flowers are arranged in an umbellate manner, though not forming a true umbel. Whilst flowering the long pedicels are erect, but after flowering they hang down; after fruiting they become erect again. Flowers April and May.

Name derived from the Greek _olos_, all, and _osteon_, bone, but Artemus Ward would have said it was “wrote sarcastick,” for there is nothing suggestive of bones in so soft a plant.

=Dandelion= (_Taraxacum officinale_).

Everyone thinks he knows the Dandelion when he sees it and probably he does; but often when he sees a Hawkbit he believes it to be a Dandelion. We may not like to find the Dandelion taking possession of our lawn, but we should regret to miss it from the odd corners by the fence and the roadside. It is a flower of three seasons, for it blooms continuously from March to October, and it is no unusual thing to see its golden flower in winter.

This is a Composite flower, like the Daisy, but whereas the Daisy head was seen to be made up of a host of tubular flowers, with a single outer row of _ligulate_, or strap-shaped ones, those of the Dandelion are all ligulate. It therefore stands as a representative of the second series of Composite genera. The plant has no proper stem, the leaves springing directly from the long, thick root. From their midst arise the flower-heads on their hollow stalks. The floral envelope (_involucre_) consists of a double row of scales (_bracts_), the inner long, the outer shorter. The outer are turned back and clasp the stalk, the inner erect. Take off a single floret and examine with a lens. It will be seen that each is a perfect flower, containing both anthers and stigmas. The ovary is crowned by the corolla, which is invested by a _pappus_ of soft white silky hairs. Within the corolla the five anthers unite to form a tube, in which is the style, which divides above into two stigmas. After fertilization the corollas wither, the inner bracts closing over them while the fruits grow. Then the bracts open again, each pappus spreads into a parachute, and the whole of them constitute the fluffy ball by which children feign to tell the time. A light wind detaches them, and they float off to disperse the seeds far and wide. The only British species.

The name is believed to be derived from two Greek words, _Taraxos_, disorder, and _akos_, remedy: in allusion to its well-known medicinal qualities as an alterative.

=The Bugle= (_Ajuga reptans_), and

=The Forget-me-not= (_Myosotis palustris_).

The Common Bugle meets one from April to July in wood and field, and on the waste places by the roadside. It is a creeping plant, runners being sent out from the short stout rootstock, and these rooting send up flowering stems from ½ to 1 foot in height. The leaves from the root are stalked; those from the stem are not. The flowers and the upper bract are dull purple in colour. The flowers are peculiarly fashioned in what is botanically termed a labiate manner: that is to say, the five petals of the corolla are united to form a somewhat bell-shaped flower, the mouth of which is divided into two unequal lips. The upper lip is two-lobed, the lower three-lobed. The upper usually acts as a roof to shelter the stamens and stigmas, the lower as a platform upon which insects may alight when they come to seek honey and to fertilize the flower. In the present species the anthers and stigmas project beyond the upper lip, which is very short; but they are protected by the overhanging lower bract of the flower above. There are interesting facts in connection with the fertilization of these labiate flowers, which, however, we must leave for a couple of pages. It is characteristic of the Labiatæ that the stems are square, the leaves opposite, the corolla bilabiate, the stamens less in number than the lobes of the corolla.

The Forget-me-not is so well known that with our limited space we will be content with noting that its flowers are similar in structure to those of the Lungwort (page 9), though the tube is shorter. Like _Pulmonaria_, it is a plant of the order Boragineæ, genus _Myosotis_. There are six British species. Name, from two Greek words signifying mouse-ear, in allusion to the shape of the leaves.

=The Greater Plantain= (_Plantago major_), and

=The Ribwort Plantain= (_P. lanceolata_).